Which of the following can be accurately described by a “deterministic” model, that is, a model which does not require any concept of probability?
(a) The position of a small particle in space
(b) The velocity of an object dropped from the leaning tower of Pisa
(c) The lifetime of a heavy smoker
(d) The value of a stock which was purchased for $20 one month ago
(e) The number of servers at a large data center which crash on a given day