Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (Course, Etiology, Treatment) · Prevalence and Course o Prevalence rates vary widely with sampling methods Estimates: 6-7% of school-age children and adolescents in North o America and 5% worldwide have ADHD o ADHD is one of the most common referral problems seen at clinics . Gender ADHD occurs more frequently in boys o Overall rates decrease in adolescence for both sexes - ratio remains the same o Ratio in clinical samples is 6:1, with boys being referred more often than girls · ADHD in girls may go unrecognized and unreported o DSM criteria (cutoffs and symptoms) may be more appropriate to boys than girls o Girls with ADHD may be more likely to display inattentive/disorganized symptoms o Clinic-referred school-age children with ADHD display similar symptoms o Girls with ADHD who display impulsive-hyperactive behaviors . More likely to develop eating disorder Symptom . Socioeconomic Status and Race/Ethnicity ADHD affects children from all social classes . Slightly more prevalent among lower SES groups o Findings are inconsistent regarding relationships among ADHD, race, and ethnicity · Culture o ADHD is found in all countries and cultures · Rates vary o Cultural differences may reflect cultural norms and tolerance for ADHD symptoms ADHD is a universal phenomenon that is diagnosed more often in boys than girls in all cultures · Expression, associated features, impairments, and outcomes are quite similar wherever it occur · Infancy o Signs of ADHD (irritability, anger, atypical development) may be present at birth - no reliable or valid methods exist to identify it o Study: found that even when controlling for maternal variables/stuff during pregnancy, family's history of ADHD was related to infant irritability. Significance: even before kid develops ADHD, they may show markers/signs in terms of emotionality, allows for preventative measures to be put in place, potentially reducing future ADHD rates . Course and Outcomes in Preschool and Elementary School o Preschool " Hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms become more visible and significant at ages 3-4 . Children with symptoms for at least 1 year are likely to continue to have difficulties later in middle childhood and adolescence o Elementary School " Symptoms are especially evident when the child starts school · Oppositional defiant behaviors may increase or develop . By age 8-12, defiance and hostility may take the form of serious problems
· Increased problems may encompass self-care, personal responsibility, chores, trustworthiness, independence, social relationships, and academic performance . Course and Outcome Adolescence and Adulthood Many children with ADHD do not outgrow problems and some can get much worse At least 50% of clinic-referred elementary school children continue to suffer from ADHD into adolescence o Adult challenges " Some individuals either outgrow or learn to cope with their disorder by adulthood · ADHD is established as an adult disorder · Theories and Causes o Trait from evolutionary past as hunters o ADHD is a myth fabricated because society needs it o Some theories · Cognitive functioning deficits · Reward/motivation deficits · Arousal level deficits · Self-regulation deficit · A