What type of intermolecular forces must be overcome in...

What type of intermolecular forces must be overcome in converting each of the following from a liquid to a gas?
(a) liquid $\mathrm{O}_{2}$
(c) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{I}$ (methyl iodide)
(b) mercury
(d) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{OH}$ (ethanol)

Key Concepts

Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces are the attractions between molecules or atoms that dictate many of a substance’s physical properties, such as boiling and melting points. Overcoming these forces is necessary to convert a substance from a liquid to a gas, as the molecules must separate sufficiently to flow freely in the gaseous state.

London Dispersion Forces

London dispersion forces are the weakest intermolecular attractions and arise from temporary fluctuations in electron density that create instantaneous dipoles. These forces are present in all molecules and atoms, particularly in non-polar substances, and play a major role in determining the boiling points of such liquids.

Dipole–Dipole Interactions

Dipole–dipole interactions occur in polar molecules that have permanent dipoles. The electrostatic attractive forces between the partially positive end of one molecule and the partially negative end of another increase the energy required for phase change compared to non-polar molecules.

Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bonding is a particularly strong type of dipole–dipole interaction that occurs when hydrogen is directly bonded to highly electronegative atoms like oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine. This interaction significantly elevates boiling points and must be overcome when converting such liquids into gases.

Metallic Bonding

Metallic bonding occurs between metal atoms, where delocalized electrons create a 'sea' of electrons that holds the positively charged ions together. This type of bonding, which contributes to the unique properties of metals, must be disrupted to vaporize a metallic liquid.

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