A recent study found that participants who responded with higher scores on the item "Because of
my spiritual or religious beliefs, I have forgiven those who hurt me" tended to report subsequent
increases in positive affect. A news article reported on the study with the headline "Longitudinal
study finds forgiving others is associated with subsequent improvements in mental health".
All of the following are threats to the validity of this conclusion, EXCEPT:
1.) Other factors may confound the association between forgiveness and positive affect.
2.) The forgiveness measure could be contaminated by spiritual/religious beliefs.
3.) The study design lacks temporal precedence.