early 20th century. Under dual federalism, the national and state governments were seen as distinct and separate entities, each with its own sphere of authority. This meant that the powers of the federal government were limited to those specifically enumerated in the Constitution, while the states retained all other powers. This strict division of powers began to erode with the advent of cooperative federalism, which emerged during the New Deal era and has continued to the present day. Cooperative federalism is characterized by a more flexible relationship between the national and state governments, with both levels of government working together to address complex policy issues. This shift has led to a blurring of the lines between federal and state authority, as well as an expansion of the federal government's role in areas that were once considered the exclusive domain of the states.