Rafael and Alan are brothers. When playing, Alan always says, “I’m going to get you,” just before he hits Rafael. Rafael also says, “I’m going to get you,” but doesn’t always hit Alan afterwards. According to Rescorla’s signal relations theory, which one of the following statements most accurately explains which brother will be more frightened when hearing “I’m going to get you”?
a. Rafael will be more frightened because he can better predict when he’s about to be hit.
b. Alan will be more frightened because he is never sure when Rafael is going to hit him.
c. Alan will be more frightened because he was conditioned using a variable-ratio schedule.
d. Rafael will be more frightened because he has developed a phobia.