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Solids

In physics, solids are a collection of particles that are rigid, the behavior of which can be described by the rules of quantum mechanics. The particles in a solid are closely packed and fixed in place. A solid's rigidity is caused by inter-atomic forces between the constituent particles that result in an overall shape of the solid, which can be visualized as the rigid atoms forming a three-dimensional lattice. In contrast, liquids are collections of molecules, and are not fixed in place, but assume a shape only approximate to that of the container. Gases are not rigid, but assume a shape determined by the distribution of the molecules in the container. The distinction between solids and liquids is not absolute, and solids such as glass can be liquids at very low temperatures. The rigidity of solids is a consequence of the short range order of the individual particles in solids. Solid particles are packed together more closely than the particles in a gas or liquid. In the absence of any external pressure, particles in a liquid or gas would form an idealized disordered structure. Only at pressures above the vapour pressure of the liquid or above the triple point pressure of the gas does the liquid or gas assume a definite structure. At pressures below these triple point pressures, the structure is still disordered; it is only above the triple point pressure that the structure is quantized. Reacting gases present special problems because of their high density and the pressure of the reaction products. An example is the combustion of hydrogen, which is exothermic and produces large amounts of energy. The energy released can then be used to compress the gas at high temperature, allowing the gas to be stored as a liquid. The more general question of the properties of solids is considerably more difficult to answer. It is known that solids have a much greater mass per unit volume than liquids or gases. This is because solids are composed of particles packed much more closely than the particles in a gas. For example, the particles making up a cubic centimeter of air would take up a volume of 10.4 liters, while the particles making up a cubic centimeter of air in a solid would take up a volume of only 0.24 liters, a mass of 5,500 times less. Although this difference may not seem very large, consider that the density of a solid is about one-hundred fold greater than that of a liquid.

Classifications of solids

99 Practice Problems
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01:52
Physical Chemistry

What is the equation for the distances between 110 planes for a crystal with mutually perpendicular axes?

Solid-State Chemistry
Madi Sousa
00:55
Introduction to General, Organic and Biochemistry

What is the basic difference in the functional groups between citrate and isocitrate?

Bioenergetics: How the Body Converts Food to Energy
Danielle Ashley
03:10
Chemistry

Based on the following properties of elemental boron, classify it as one of the crystalline solids discussed in Section 12.4: high melting point $\left(2300^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right),$ poor conductor of heat and electricity, insoluble in water, very hard substance.

Intermolecular Forces and the Physical Properties of Liquids and Solids
Shazia Naz

Lattice Structures

141 Practice Problems
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0:00
Inorganic Chemistry

a. Show that spheres occupy $74.0 \%$ of the total volume in a face-centered cubic structure in which all atoms are identical.
b. What percent of the total volume is occupied by spheres in a body-centered cube in which all atoms are identical?

The Crystalline Solid State
0:00
Inorganic Chemistry

Determine the point groups of the following unit cells:
a. Face-centered cubic
b. Body-centered tetragonal
c. $\mathrm{CsCl} \text { (Figure } 7.7)$
d. Diamond (Figure $7.6)$
e. Nickel arsenide (Figure 7.10 )

The Crystalline Solid State
01:08
Shriver & Atkins’ Inorganic Chemistry

Determine the formula of a compound produced by filling $\frac{1}{4}$ of he tetrahedral holes with cations $\mathrm{X}$ in a hexagonal close-packed array of anions $A$.

The structures of simple solids
David Collins

Metallic Solids

35 Practice Problems
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03:04
Physical Chemistry

Hydrogen is dissociatively adsorbed on a metal, and the pressure required to obtain half of the saturation coverage of the surface is 10 Pa. $(a)$ What pressure will be required to reach $\Theta=0.75 ?(b)$ What pressure would have been required if the adsorption were not dissociative?

Surface Dynamics
Madi Sousa
03:05
Physical Chemistry

The only metal that crystallizes in a primitive cubic lattice is polonium, which has a unit cell side of $334.5 \mathrm{pm}$. What are the perpendicular distances between planes with indices (110) $(111),(210),$ and (211)$?$

Solid-State Chemistry
Madi Sousa
02:43
Chemistry

The distance between layers in an $\mathrm{NaCl}$ crystal is $282 \mathrm{pm} . \mathrm{X}$ rays are diffracted from these layers at an angle of $23.0^{\circ}$. Assuming that $n=1,$ calculate the wavelength of the $X$ rays in nanometers.

Intermolecular Forces and the Physical Properties of Liquids and Solids
Shazia Naz

Ionic Solids

40 Practice Problems
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01:31
Inorganic Chemistry

Elemental Se and Te react with 4-tetrafluoropyridyl silver(I) to afford $\operatorname{Se}\left(\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{F}_{4} \mathrm{N}\right)_{2}$ and $\mathrm{Te}\left(\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{F}_{4} \mathrm{N}\right)_{2}$. Two independent bent molecules were found for each compound in the solid state with $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{Se}-\mathrm{C}$ angles of $95.47(12)^{\circ}$ and $96.16(13)^{\circ}$ and $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{Te}-\mathrm{C}$ angles of $90.86(18)^{\circ}$ and $91.73(18)^{\circ}$ respectively (Aboulkacem, S.; Naumann, D.; Tyrra, W.; Pantenburg, I. Organometallics, 2012,31,1559 ).
a. Explain why the angles are more acute for the Te compound relative to the Se compound.
b. These angles are approximately $0.8^{\circ}$ (Se) and $2.0^{\circ}$ (Te) more acute than those in the related pentafluorophenyl $\left(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{F}_{5}\right)$ compounds. The greater compression of these angles in the 4 -tetrafluoropyridyl compounds has been postulated on the basis of group electronegativity differences. Explain the logic associated with this hypothesis.

Simple Bonding Theory
02:17
Physical Chemistry

23.8 Cesium chloride, bromide, and iodide form interpenetrating simple cubic crystals instead of interpenetrating face-centered cubic crystals like the other alkali halides. The length of the side of the unit cell of $\mathrm{CsCl}$ is $412.1 \mathrm{pm}$. (a) What is the density?
(b) Calculate the ion radius of $\mathrm{Cs}^{+}$, assuming that the ions touch along a diagonal through the unit cell and that the ion radius of $\mathrm{Cl}^{-}$ is $181 \mathrm{pm}$

Solid-State Chemistry
Madi Sousa
02:22
Physical Chemistry: A Molecular Approach

In an issue of the journal Science a few years ago, a research group discussed experiments in which they determined the structure of cesium iodide crystals at a pressure of 302 gigapascals (GPa). How many atmospheres and bars is this pressure?

The Properties of Gases

Molecular Solids

85 Practice Problems
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03:35
General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications

Sketch a plausible phase diagram for hydrazine $\left(\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4}\right)$ from the following data: triple point $\left(2.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right.$ and $3.4 \mathrm{mmHg}$ ), the normal melting point $\left(2^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right),$ the normal boiling point $\left(113.5^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right),$ and the critical point $\left(380^{\circ} \mathrm{C} \text { and } 145 \mathrm{atm}\right) .$ The density of the liquid is less than that of the solid. Label significant data points on this diagram. Are there any features of the diagram that remain uncertain? Explain.

Intermolecular Forces: Liquids and Solids
Lottie Adams
00:35
Chemistry

Classify the unit cell of molecular iodine.

Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids
Jake Rempel
05:12
Chemistry

Describe and give examples of the following types of crystals: (a) ionic crystals, (b) covalent crystals, (c) molecular crystals, (d) metallic crystals.

Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids
Kyle Gassaway

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