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- Taxon should be taxa - "outgroup" should be "out group" - "ingroup" should be "in group" - "Hint" should be followed by a colon - "Tripartit" should be "Tripartite" - "d fins" should be "of fins" - "breath" should be "breathe" - "organ" should be "organs" - "bladde" should be "bladder" - "No.of" should be "No. of" - "dermved" should be "derived" - "wth" should be "with" - "homologous" should be "homologous" - "List all" should be "List all the" - "taxon" should be "taxa" - "monophyletic" should be "monophyletic," - "paraphyletic" should be "paraphyletic," - "polyphyletic" should be "polyphyletic," - "plesiomorphic" should be "plesiomorphic" - "synapomorphic" should be "synapomorphic" - "Orcinus orca" should be "Orcinus orca," - "Trichechus manatus" should be "Trichechus manatus," - "Odobenus rosmarus" should be "Odobenus rosmarus," - "Alces alces" should be "Alces alces," - "Ursus arctos" should be "Ursus arctos," - "Loxodonta africana" should be "Loxodonta africana," 

          - Taxon should be taxa
- "outgroup" should be "out group"
- "ingroup" should be "in group"
- "Hint" should be followed by a colon
- "Tripartit" should be "Tripartite"
- "d fins" should be "of fins"
- "breath" should be "breathe"
- "organ" should be "organs"
- "bladde" should be "bladder"
- "No.of" should be "No. of"
- "dermved" should be "derived"
- "wth" should be "with"
- "homologous" should be "homologous"
- "List all" should be "List all the"
- "taxon" should be "taxa"
- "monophyletic" should be "monophyletic,"
- "paraphyletic" should be "paraphyletic,"
- "polyphyletic" should be "polyphyletic,"
- "plesiomorphic" should be "plesiomorphic"
- "synapomorphic" should be "synapomorphic"
- "Orcinus orca" should be "Orcinus orca,"
- "Trichechus manatus" should be "Trichechus manatus,"
- "Odobenus rosmarus" should be "Odobenus rosmarus,"
- "Alces alces" should be "Alces alces,"
- "Ursus arctos" should be "Ursus arctos,"
- "Loxodonta africana" should be "Loxodonta africana,"
Show more…
taxon should be taxa outgroup should be out group ingroup should be in group hint should be followed by a colon tripartit should be tripartite d fins should be of fins breath should be brea 81307

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Biology for AP Courses
Biology for AP Courses
Julianne Zedalis, John Eggebrecht
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- Taxon should be taxa - "outgroup" should be "out group" - "ingroup" should be "in group" - "Hint" should be followed by a colon - "Tripartit" should be "Tripartite" - "d fins" should be "of fins" - "breath" should be "breathe" - "organ" should be "organs" - "bladde" should be "bladder" - "No.of" should be "No. of" - "dermved" should be "derived" - "wth" should be "with" - "homologous" should be "homologous" - "List all" should be "List all the" - "taxon" should be "taxa" - "monophyletic" should be "monophyletic," - "paraphyletic" should be "paraphyletic," - "polyphyletic" should be "polyphyletic," - "plesiomorphic" should be "plesiomorphic" - "synapomorphic" should be "synapomorphic" - "Orcinus orca" should be "Orcinus orca," - "Trichechus manatus" should be "Trichechus manatus," - "Odobenus rosmarus" should be "Odobenus rosmarus," - "Alces alces" should be "Alces alces," - "Ursus arctos" should be "Ursus arctos," - "Loxodonta africana" should be "Loxodonta africana,"
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Cladistics – An Exercise in Phylogenetic Relationships Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a group of interrelated species. Phylogenetic methods infer evolutionary relationships from molecular, morphological, and/or behavioral data, presenting these relationships in the form of a tree diagram. A phylogenetic tree is composed of nodes and branches. Terminal nodes (the tips of branches) represent living taxa, internal nodes (where two branches meet) represent last common ancestors and inferred ancestral morphotypes, and branches define the relationships between the nodes. You can rotate bifurcating branches at any node without changing the relationships between taxa! The principles of cladistics, originally called phylogenetic systematics, are based on the belief that one must discriminate between ‘true’ similarity, homology, and superficial and misleading similarity, analogy, in order to accurately reconstruct phylogenetic relationships. (A classic example of an analogy is the similarity between dolphins and sharks – a shark is a fish, and a dolphin is a mammal, but they have both adapted to aquatic conditions. They are not very closely related, but one must look beyond superficial similarity to realize this.) To discuss the concepts of homology and analogy, we must first define two essential concepts used in cladistic analysis: character and character state. In fact, we have already used these concepts in the above example. A character can be any recognizable feature, for example, a location on a DNA strand; a morphological trait, such as enamel thickness; or a behavioral trait, such as locomotor pattern. A character state is the form each character takes. In the above three examples, character states could be: the presence of Adenine (A) at position three of a sequence of DNA; the presence of thin enamel; or being bipedal. A character must have two or more states. To determine the direction of evolutionary polarity of character states (how they changed through time) we can root the cladogram using the outgroup method. An outgroup is a taxon that is equally distantly related to all members of the group we are interested in, the ingroup. All character states shared between the outgroup and the ingroup are shared primitive characters. Once the characters have been defined, and the character states identified, a tree or cladogram can be constructed. The basic process involves grouping species with similar character states together. In contrast to phenetics (a seldom used method based on evaluation of overall similarity), in cladistics, we must partition similarity into three components: (1) that due to analogy (called homoplasy in cladistic analysis); (2) the sharing of primitive homologies; and, (3) the sharing of derived homologies. Homoplasy occurs in characters of taxa (a species or a group of related species; singular form: taxon) that have evolved independently, leading to parallel or convergent character states for a particular character. These characters are not used in cladistic analysis. Shared primitive homologies are similarities that are inherited from a distant common ancestor. These characters are also not useful in cladistic analysis. Characters states found only in one taxon are uniquely derived characters and are also not used in cladistics. After all, how could something unique in one organism tell you about another organism or their relationship? Shared, derived homologies are the most important similarities in cladistic analysis. These are traits found in a group’s most recent common ancestor, but not in more distant ancestors, which still display the primitive character states. Only shared, derived traits can be used to define clades (i.e., groups that contain a common ancestor and all its descendants). To implement these cladistic concepts, we use another principle, that of maximum parsimony. The principle of maximum parsimony is based on the concept that the hypothesis with the fewest assumptions best fits the data at hand. In evolutionary terms, this means that the phylogenetic hypothesis (a tree) with the fewest number of changes is the best or most parsimonious. By finding the evolutionary tree with the fewest number of changes on it, we automatically minimize the number of homoplasies or characters that require additional explanations as to how they evolved. This has the fortuitous effect of maximizing the number of shared derived traits, which define the groups we are interested in discovering. Since shared derived traits are the only type of traits cladistic analyses should use, the tree with the greatest number of shared derived traits (and thus fewest homoplasies) is the phylogenetic tree that best represents the data.

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Researchers who study past life forms are:a. behavioral ecologists b. primatologists c. environmentalists d. paleontologists e. revolutionists At the beginning of the Cenozoic Era (Cen = recent), which is a geological time frame in which animals proliferated. Which group of animals underwent adaptive radiation during this geological period? a. dinosaursb. reptilesc. mammals d. insects e. amphibians Which ’epoch’ is associated with the adaptive radiation of the first’ true’ primates?a. Pleistoceneb. Eocenec. Holocene d. Miocene e. Paleocene What is the hallmark feature of being a hominid?a. large cranial capacity b. bipedalism c. tool making d. eating meat e. use of fire Which Information can be interpreted from skeletal fossil evidence?a. evolutionary relationshipsb. diet c. age d. sex e. locomotion behavior ab. mating systems ac. only a and b ad. only a and dae. all of the above Which dating technique(s) provide ’exact’ dates of fossils?a. Carbon 14b. fluorine analysisc. stratigraphy d. comparative studies of skeletal remains e. all of the above How many bones make up the adult hominid skeleton? a. 145 b. 200 c. 206 d. 302 e. 501 Which fossil primates originate in the Paleocene?a. Plesiadapiformesb. Adapoidsc. Omomyoidsd. Hominoidse. only humans Ancestors to Strepsirhines are:a. Cantiusb. Tetoniusc. Plesiadapisd. Archicebuse. Sivapithecus Who is "Ida"? A fossil primate who originated in the:a. Oligoceneb. Paleocenec. Eocened. Miocenee. Pleistoceneab. Plioceneac. Holocene Adapoids are ancestors to:a. Strepsirhines b. Haplorhines Why are Plesiadapiformes not considered to be ’true’ primates? They: a. lack a post-orbital bar b. have lateral eyes c. have a dental tooth comb d. have grasping toes e. lack post-orbital closure ab. only a and b ac. all of the above Which type of instrument do forensic anthropologists use to measure skulls? a. sliding calipers b. spreading calipers c. both a and b d. neither of the above [Refer to Lab 12 Investigating the Past: Fossil Primates + Lab 13: Early Members of the Human Line]Between 7-8 m.y.a., we shared a common ancestor with our African ape relatives. Which epoch of the Cenozoic did hominids originate? [Hint: this is at the beginning of an epoch rather than at the end of one]a. Oligoceneb. Paleocenec. Eocened. Miocenee. Pleistoceneab. Plioceneac. Holocene Compared to most other animals, humans are "unbalanced" in locomotion. Our center of mass lies over two limbs over a broadened, and shortened pelvis. Group of answer choices True False [Refer to Lab 13: Early Members of the Human Line +Lab 14: The Genus Homo]The first "tool maker" is Homo habilis. Which epoch did they originate? a. Oligoceneb. Paleocenec. Eocened. Miocenee. Pleistoceneab. Plioceneac. Holocene This is a cranium of an Anatomically modern H. sapiens. Why? Because:a. it has a low-lying craniumb. it has a high vaulted cranium, with little to no brow ridgesc. it has large protruding brow ridgesd. it has the appearance of high intelligence based on it's the broad cerebral cortexe. it's bipedal Refer to the following list of terms of skeletal bones: #2 is the lower part of the jaw bone [Hint: for an AMH the dentition is small compared to earlier hominids]a. cervicalb. tibia c. humerus d. scapula e. mandibleab. maxilla Refer to the following list of terms of skeletal bones: #3 a. cervicalb. tibia c. humerus d. scapula e. mandibleab. maxillaac. femur Refer to the following list of terms of skeletal bones: #4 (this (or these) bones allow for more dexterous movement of objects)a. cervicalb. tibia c. humerus d. tarsal bones e. metacarpal bones Which bone is angled inward for hominids to allow for bipedal locomotion?a. 3b. 4c. 5 d. 8 e. 6 [Refer to Illustration 2]Is this a vertebral column of a hominid or ape?a. ape, because its a single curveb. hominid, because its s-shapedc. arboreal quadrupedd. terrestrial quadrupede. brachiator Which vertebrae are the cervical vertebrae?a. 1 (yellow)b. 2 (green)c. 3 (blue)d. 4 (red) Which vertebrae are the lumbar vertebrae? [Hint: hominids have one less vertebrae in this region for improved stability]a. 1 (yellow)b. 2 (green)c. 3 (blue)d. 4 (red) Which vertebrae is absent in hominids?a. 1 (yellow)b. 2 (green)c. 3 (blue)d. 4 (red)e. 5 (white)ab. none of the above [Refer to Illustration 3 ]Fig. 1: this measurement is:a. the cranial breathb. the cranial lengthc. the cranial indexd. the cranial capacitye. none of the above [Refer to Illustration 3 ]Fig. 2: this measurement is:a. the cranial breathb. the cranial lengthc. the cranial indexd. the cranial capacitye. none of the above [Refer to Illustration 4 ]The view of this skull is:a. anterior b. posterior c. superior d. lateral e. inferior [Refer to Illustration 4]. Which type of mammal is it? :a. Cantiusb. Tetoniusc. Plesiadapisd. Archiccebuse. Sivapithecus

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Can you help me to solve these questions? Thank you so much. 1. You discover a new fossil primate species in which females are much smaller in body size than males and also have small canine teeth. What do these two aspects of their anatomy allow you to infer about their behavior? Group of answer choices: a. There is intense male-male competition for access to females. b. Females compete with each other for access to mates. c. Females out-compete males for food. d. The males defend the females from predators. 2. Which of these types of vertebrae is NOT found in a human skeleton? Group of answer choices: a. Cervical. b. Caudal. c. Thoracic. d. Lumbar. 3. A scapula that is positioned on the side (lateral), rather than on the back (posterior), is better for Group of answer choices: a. Quadrupedal locomotion. b. Leaping locomotion. c. Overhead mobility. d. Suspensory locomotion. 4. Osteology is the study of Group of answer choices: a. The bones of the skeleton. b. How organisms are classified. c. How primates are adapted to their environment. d. The primates of the world. 5. Both baboons and chimpanzees have postorbital closure. They share a common ancestor that had this trait as well. In this example, postorbital closure is a/an Group of answer choices: a. Unique derived trait. b. Convergent trait. c. Homologous trait. d. Analogous trait. 6. Traits that are shared by multiple taxa because the trait evolved in a common ancestor are Group of answer choices: a. Not informative of evolutionary relationships. b. Homologies. c. Uncommon. d. Analogies. 7. You are looking through a museum collection of primates and you find a mandible that is not labeled. It has a tooth comb and an unfused mandibular symphysis, so you know it must belong to the Group of answer choices: a. Catarrhines. b. Platyrrhines. c. Strepsirhines. d. Cercopithecoids. 8. A primate that is diurnal is one that Group of answer choices: a. Is active during the day. b. Lives in a social group of one male and one female and their offspring. c. Is active at night. d. Eats only fruit. 9. Leaves as a food source for primates Group of answer choices: a. Are only eaten by small primates. b. Are available only at certain times of the year. c. Contain lots of nutrients or energy. d. Are difficult to digest because they contain cellulose. 10. Which of the following statements about platyrrhines is NOT true? Group of answer choices: a. They are found on the South American continent. b. They are anthropoids. c. They have a dental formula of 2.2.2.3. d. Some of them have prehensile tails. 11. Explain the pattern seen between body size and diet in Primates. Describe the pattern using the dietary categories of insectivores, frugivores, and folivores. Explain why the pattern exists, taking into account different properties of foods. Be sure to include Kay's Threshold in your answer, explaining what it is.

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Transcript

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00:02 Okay, so for a phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree, it's a branching diagram or tree showing the evolutionary relationships amongst various biological species or other entities.
00:25 Their phylogeny based upon similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics.
00:32 A clodistic is a method of hypnotizing relationships among organisms or hypothesizing.
00:38 In other words, it's a method of reconstructing evolutionary trees...
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