You are reviewing the results of a cohort study of vitamin D supplements and prostate cancer. The study had an alpha level of 0.05 and 95% confidence interval (CI). The study findings report a relative risk (RR) of 0.75, P value = 0.20, 95% CI (1.45 - .60). What can you conclude from this study? A. Vitamin D is a protective factor for prostate cancer B. Vitamin D is a risk factor for prostate cancer. C. The results are not statistically significant so therefore there is no association between Vitamin D and prostate cancer. D. The results show there is an association but you cannot tell in which direction.
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75 indicates that there is a decreased risk of prostate cancer associated with taking vitamin D supplements. Show more…
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An epidemiological study of 500 men between the ages of 20 and 65 years revealed a correlation between an increased consumption of tomatoes and a lower incidence of prostate cancer. The results of this study do not prove that increased tomato consumption lowers the risk for prostate cancer because: A) The study shows a correlation between two factors that may or may not actually have an effect on each other. B) The study does not show how tomatoes lower prostate cancer risk. C) A single study cannot provide enough evidence to conclusively prove an effect. D) All of the above are valid reasons.
Adi S.
Prostate Cancer Screening. According to a 2018 article in Esquire magazine, approximately $70 \%$ of males over age 70 will develop cancerous cells in their prostate. Prostate cancer is second only to skin cancer as the most common form of cancer for males in the United States. One of the most common tests for the detection of prostate cancer is the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test. However, this test is known to have a high false-positive rate (tests that come back positive for cancer when no cancer is present). Suppose there is a .02 probability that a male patient has prostate cancer before testing. The probability of a false-positive test is $.75,$ and the probability of a false-negative (no indication of cancer when cancer is actually present) is .20. a. What is the probability that the male patient has prostate cancer if the PSA test comes back positive? b. What is the probability that the male patient has prostate cancer if the PSA test comes back negative? c. For older men, the prior probability of having cancer increases. Suppose that the prior probability of the male patient is .3 rather than $.02 .$ What is the probability that the male patient has prostate cancer if the PSA test comes back positive? What is the probability that the male patient has prostate cancer if the PSA test comes back negative? d. What can you infer about the PSA test from the results of parts (a), (b), and (c)?
The United States Preventative Services Task Force recommended against using the PSA test to screen healthy men for prostate cancer. Their recommendation is based on evidence that screening does not reduce the risk of death from prostate cancer. Prostate cancer often develops very slowly and does not cause problems, while the cancer treatment can have severe side effects. The $P C A 3$ test is considered to be more accurate, but screening may still result in men who would not have been harmed by the cancer itself suffering side effects from treatment. What do you think? Should all healthy men be screened for prostate cancer using the $P C A 3$ or $P S A$ test? Should people in general be screened to find out if they have a genetic risk for cancer or other diseases?
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