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Chemistry

Steven S. Zumdahl, Susan A. Zumdahl

Chapter 17

Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy - all with Video Answers

Educators

Chapter Questions

01:14

Problem 1

For the process $\mathrm{A}(l) \longrightarrow \mathrm{A}(g)$, which direction is favored by changes in energy probability? Positional probability? Explain your answers. If you wanted to favor the process as written, would you raise or lower the temperature of the system? Explain.

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
02:51

Problem 2

For a liquid, which would you expect to be larger, $\Delta S_{\text {fusion }}$ or $\Delta S_{\text {evaporation }}$ ? Why?

DT
David Tompkins
Numerade Educator
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Problem 3

Gas $\mathrm{A}_{2}$ reacts with gas $\mathrm{B}_{2}$ to form gas $\mathrm{AB}$ at a constant temperature. The bond energy of $\mathrm{AB}$ is much greater than that of either reactant. What can be said about the sign of $\Delta H ? \Delta S_{\text {sumr }} ? \Delta S ?$ Explain how potential energy changes for this process. Explain how random kinetic energy changes during the process.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
01:07

Problem 4

What types of experiments can be carried out to determine whether a reaction is spontaneous? Does spontaneity have any relationship to the final equilibrium position of a reaction? Explain.

Yokshitha Reddy Bathula
Yokshitha Reddy Bathula
Numerade Educator
01:59

Problem 5

A friend tells you, "Free energy $G$ and pressure $P$ are related by the equation $G=G^{\circ}+R T \ln (P) .$ Also, $G$ is related to the equilibrium constant $K$ in that when $G_{\text {products }}=G_{\text {reactants }}$, the system is at equilibrium. Therefore, it must be true that a system is at equilibrium when all the pressures are equal." Do you agree with this friend? Explain.

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
01:17

Problem 6

You remember that $\Delta G^{\circ}$ is related to $R T \ln (K)$ but cannot remember if it's $R T \ln (K)$ or $-R T \ln (K) .$ Realizing what $\Delta G^{\circ}$ and $K$ mean, how can you figure out the correct sign?

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
02:10

Problem 7

Predict the sign of $\Delta S$ for each of the following and explain.
a. the evaporation of alcohol
b. the freezing of water
c. compressing an ideal gas at constant temperature
d. dissolving $\mathrm{NaCl}$ in water

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
02:31

Problem 8

Is $\Delta S_{\text {surr }}$ favorable or unfavorable for exothermic reactions? Endothermic reactions? Explain.

Natalie Nordenfelt
Natalie Nordenfelt
Numerade Educator
04:39

Problem 9

At 1 atm, liquid water is heated above $100^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. For this process, which of the following choices (i-iv) is correct for $\Delta S_{\text {sur }}$ ? $\Delta S$ ? $\Delta S_{\text {univ }} ?$ Explain each answer.
i. greater than zero
ii. less than zero
iii. equal to zero iv. cannot be determined

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
04:50

Problem 10

When (if ever) are high temperatures unfavorable to a reaction thermodynamically?

Natalie Nordenfelt
Natalie Nordenfelt
Numerade Educator
01:51

Problem 11

The synthesis of glucose directly from $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$ and $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ and the synthesis of proteins directly from amino acids are both nonspontaneous processes under standard conditions. Yet it is necessary for these to occur for life to exist. In light of the second law of thermodynamics, how can life exist?

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
05:20

Problem 12

When the environment is contaminated by a toxic or potentially toxic substance (for example, from a chemical spill or the use of insecticides), the substance tends to disperse. How is this consistent with the second law of thermodynamics? In terms of the second law, which requires the least work: cleaning the environment after it has been contaminated or trying to prevent the contamination before it occurs? Explain.

Ibrahim Abdullahi
Ibrahim Abdullahi
Numerade Educator
00:59

Problem 13

Entropy has been described as "time's arrow." Interpret this view of entropy.

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
01:35

Problem 14

A mixture of hydrogen gas and chlorine gas remains unreacted until it is exposed to ultraviolet light from a burning magnesium strip. Then the following reaction occurs very rapidly:
$$\mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{Cl}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{HCl}(g)$$
Explain.

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
08:51

Problem 15

Table $17.1$ shows the possible arrangements of four molecules in a two-bulbed flask. What are the possible arrangements if there is one molecule in this two-bulbed flask or two molecules or three molecules? For each, what arrangement is most likely?

Dr. Satish Ingale
Dr. Satish Ingale
Numerade Educator
01:15

Problem 16

$\Delta S_{\text {surr }}$ is sometimes called the energy disorder term. Explain.

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
01:41

Problem 17

The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at $0 \mathrm{~K}$ is zero. In Appendix $4, \mathrm{~F}^{-}(a q), \mathrm{OH}^{-}(a q)$, and $\mathrm{S}^{2-}(a q)$ all have negative standard entropy values. How can $S^{\circ}$ values be less than zero?

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
07:12

Problem 18

The deciding factor on why HF is a weak acid and not a strong acid like the other hydrogen halides is entropy. What occurs when HF dissociates in water as compared to the other hydrogen halides?

Ibrahim Abdullahi
Ibrahim Abdullahi
Numerade Educator
01:22

Problem 19

List three different ways to calculate the standard free energy change, $\Delta G^{\circ}$, for a reaction at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. How is $\Delta G^{\circ}$ estimated at temperatures other than $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ ? What assumptions are made?

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
12:31

Problem 20

. What information can be determined from $\Delta G$ for a reaction? Does one get the same information from $\Delta G^{\circ}$, the standard free energy change? $\Delta G^{\circ}$ allows determination of the equilibrium constant $K$ for a reaction. How? How can one estimate the value of $K$ at temperatures other than $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ for a reaction? How can one estimate the temperature where $K=1$ for a reaction? Do all reactions have a specific temperature where $K=1 ?$

Ibrahim Abdullahi
Ibrahim Abdullahi
Numerade Educator
01:41

Problem 21

Monochloroethane $\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{Cl}\right)$ can be produced by the direct reaction of ethane gas $\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6}\right)$ with chlorine gas or by the reaction of ethylene gas $\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4}\right)$ with hydrogen chloride gas. The second reaction gives almost a $100 \%$ yield of pure $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{Cl}$ at a rapid rate without catalysis. The first method requires light as an energy source or the reaction would not occur. Yet $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the first reaction is considerably more negative than $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the second reaction. Explain how this can be so.

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
01:13

Problem 22

At $1500 \mathrm{~K}$, the process
$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{I}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{I}(g) \\
10 \mathrm{~atm} \quad 10 \mathrm{~atm}\end{array}$$
is not spontaneous. However, the process
$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{I}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{I}(g) \\
0.10 \mathrm{~atm} \quad 0.10 \mathrm{~atm}\end{array}$$
is spontaneous at $1500 \mathrm{~K}$. Explain.

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
01:55

Problem 23

Which of the following processes are spontaneous?
a. Salt dissolves in $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$.
b. A clear solution becomes a uniform color after a few drops of dye are added.
c. Iron rusts.
d. You clean your bedroom.

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
04:08

Problem 24

Which of the following processes are spontaneous?
a. A house is built.
b. A satellite is launched into orbit.
c. A satellite falls back to earth.
d. The kitchen gets cluttered.

Ibrahim Abdullahi
Ibrahim Abdullahi
Numerade Educator
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Problem 25

Consider the following energy levels, each capable of holding two objects:
$E=2 \mathrm{~kJ}$ ______
$E=1 \mathrm{~kJ}$ ______
$E=0 \quad \mathrm{XX}$
Draw all the possible arrangements of the two identical particles (represented by X) in the three energy levels. What total energy is most likely, that is, occurs the greatest number of times? Assume that the particles are indistinguishable from each other.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
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Problem 26

Redo Exercise 25 with two particles $\mathrm{A}$ and $\mathrm{B}$, which can be distinguished from each other.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
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Problem 27

Choose the compound with the larger positional probability in each case.
a. $1 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{H}_{2}$ (at STP) or $1 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{H}_{2}$ (at $\left.100^{\circ} \mathrm{C}, 0.5 \mathrm{~atm}\right)$
b. $1 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~N}_{2}$ (at STP) or $1 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~N}_{2}$ (at $\left.100 \mathrm{~K}, 2.0 \mathrm{~atm}\right)$
c. $1 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s)\left(\right.$ at $\left.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)$ or $1 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l)\left(\right.$ at $\left.20^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)$

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
05:44

Problem 28

Which of the following involve an increase in the entropy of the system?
a. melting of a solid
b. sublimation
c. freezing
d. mixing
e. separation
f. boiling

Ibrahim Abdullahi
Ibrahim Abdullahi
Numerade Educator
01:16

Problem 29

Predict the sign of $\Delta S_{\text {surr }}$ for the following processes.
a. $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \longrightarrow \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$
b. $I_{2}(g) \longrightarrow I_{2}(s)$

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
04:55

Problem 30

Calculate $\Delta S_{\text {surr }}$ for the following reactions at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and 1 atm.
a. $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{5}(g)+5 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 3 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+4 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(t) \Delta H^{\circ}=-2221 \mathrm{~kJ}$
b. $2 \mathrm{NO}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{NO}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$
$\Delta H^{\circ}=112 \mathrm{~kJ}$

Ibrahim Abdullahi
Ibrahim Abdullahi
Numerade Educator
02:16

Problem 31

Given the values of $\Delta H$ and $\Delta S$, which of the following changes will be spontaneous at constant $T$ and $P ?$
a. $\Delta H=+25 \mathrm{~kJ}, \Delta S=+5.0 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K}, T=300 . \mathrm{K}$
b. $\Delta H=+25 \mathrm{~kJ}, \Delta S=+100 . \mathrm{J} / \mathrm{K}, T=300 . \mathrm{K}$
c. $\Delta H=-10 . \mathrm{kJ}, \Delta S=+5.0 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K}, T=298 \mathrm{~K}$
d. $\Delta H=-10 . \mathrm{kJ}, \Delta S=-40 . \mathrm{J} / \mathrm{K}, T=200 . \mathrm{K}$

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
04:56

Problem 32

At what temperatures will the following processes be spontaneous?
a. $\Delta H=-18 \mathrm{~kJ}$ and $\Delta S=-60 . \mathrm{J} / \mathrm{K}$
b. $\Delta H=+18 \mathrm{~kJ}$ and $\Delta S=+60 . \mathrm{J} / \mathrm{K}$
c. $\Delta H=+18 \mathrm{~kJ}$ and $\Delta S=-60 . \mathrm{J} / \mathrm{K}$
d. $\Delta H=-18 \mathrm{~kJ}$ and $\Delta S=+60 . \mathrm{J} / \mathrm{K}$

Natalie Nordenfelt
Natalie Nordenfelt
Numerade Educator
01:37

Problem 33

Ethanethiol $\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{SH} ;\right.$ also called ethyl mercaptan) is commonly added to natural gas to provide the "rotten egg" smell of a gas leak. The boiling point of ethanethiol is $35^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and its heat of vaporization is $27.5 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$. What is the entropy of vaporization for this substance?

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
03:20

Problem 34

For mercury, the enthalpy of vaporization is $58.51 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ and the entropy of vaporization is $92.92 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K} \cdot \mathrm{mol}$. What is the normal boiling point of mercury?

Shalini Tyagi
Shalini Tyagi
Numerade Educator
02:15

Problem 35

For ammonia $\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right.$ ), the enthalpy of fusion is $5.65 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ and the entropy of fusion is $28.9 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K} \cdot \mathrm{mol}$.
a. Will $\mathrm{NH}_{3}(s)$ spontaneously melt at $200 . \mathrm{K}$ ?
b. What is the approximate melting point of ammonia?

Jenna Nikles
Jenna Nikles
Numerade Educator
01:21

Problem 36

The enthalpy of vaporization of chloroform $\left(\mathrm{CHCl}_{3}\right)$ is $31.4$ $\mathrm{kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ at its boiling point $\left(61.7^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right) .$ Determine $\Delta S_{\mathrm{sys}}, \Delta S_{\mathrm{sur}}$, and
$\Delta S_{\text {univ }}$ when $1.00 \mathrm{~mol}$ chloroform is vaporized at $61.7^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and $1.00 \mathrm{~atm} .$

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
05:52

Problem 37

Predict the sign of $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for each of the following changes.
a.
b. $\mathrm{AgCl}(s) \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ag}^{+}(a q)+\mathrm{Cl}^{-}(a q)$
c. $2 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l)$
d. $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \longrightarrow \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$

Shalini Tyagi
Shalini Tyagi
Numerade Educator
06:52

Problem 38

Predict the sign of $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for each of the following changes.
a. $\mathrm{Na}(s)+\frac{1}{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{NaCl}(s)$
b. $\mathrm{N}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})+3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(\mathrm{~g}) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{NH}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})$
c. $\mathrm{NaCl}(s) \longrightarrow \mathrm{Na}^{+}(a q)+\mathrm{Cl}^{-}(a q)$
d. $\mathrm{NaCl}(s) \longrightarrow \mathrm{NaCl}(l)$

Shalini Tyagi
Shalini Tyagi
Numerade Educator
01:28

Problem 39

For each of the following pairs of substances, which substance has the greater value of $S^{\circ} ?$
a. $C_{\text {graphite }}(s)$ or $C_{\text {diamond }}(s)$
b. $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH}(l)$ or $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH}(\mathrm{g})$
c. $\mathrm{CO}_{2}(s)$ or $\mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)$

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
04:18

Problem 40

For each of the following pairs, which substance has the greater value of $S ?$
a. $\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}($ at $0 \mathrm{~K})$ or $\mathrm{He}($ at $10 \mathrm{~K})$
b. $\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$ (at $1 \mathrm{~atm}, 25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ ) or $\mathrm{He}(g)$ (at $\left.1 \mathrm{~atm}, 25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)$
c. $\mathrm{NH}_{3}(s)($ at $196 \mathrm{~K}) \longrightarrow \mathrm{NH}_{3}(l)($ at $196 \mathrm{~K})$

Ibrahim Abdullahi
Ibrahim Abdullahi
Numerade Educator
04:39

Problem 41

Predict the sign of $\Delta S^{\circ}$ and then calculate $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for each of the following reactions.
a. $2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~S}(\mathrm{~g})+\mathrm{SO}_{2}(\mathrm{~g}) \longrightarrow 3 \mathrm{~S}_{\text {thombic }}(s)+2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$
b. $2 \mathrm{SO}_{3}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{SO}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$
c. $\mathrm{Fe}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}(s)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{Fe}(s)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$

Shalini Tyagi
Shalini Tyagi
Numerade Educator
13:19

Problem 42

Predict the sign of $\Delta S^{\circ}$ and then calculate $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for each of the following reactions.
a. $\mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+{ }_{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l)$
b. $2 \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{OH}(g)+3 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+4 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$
c. $\mathrm{HCl}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{H}^{+}(a q)+\mathrm{Cl}^{-}(a q)$

Ibrahim Abdullahi
Ibrahim Abdullahi
Numerade Educator
03:27

Problem 43

For the reaction
$$\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+4 \mathrm{~F}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{CF}_{4}(g)+\mathrm{H}_{2}(g)
$$$\Delta S^{\circ}$ is equal to $-358 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K}$. Use this value and data from Appendix 4 to calculate the value of $S^{\circ}$ for $\mathrm{CF}_{4}(g)$.

Shazia Naz
Shazia Naz
Numerade Educator
01:51

Problem 44

For the reaction
$$\mathrm{CS}_{2}(g)+3 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+2 \mathrm{SO}_{2}(g)$$
$\Delta S^{\circ}$ is equal to $-143 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K}$. Use this value and data from Appendix 4 to calculate the value of $S^{\circ}$ for $\mathrm{CS}_{2}(g)$.

Jenna Nikles
Jenna Nikles
Numerade Educator
02:03

Problem 45

It is quite common for a solid to change from one structure to another at a temperature below its melting point. For example, sulfur undergoes a phase change from the rhombic crystal structure to the monoclinic crystal form at temperatures above $95^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
a. Predict the signs of $\Delta H$ and $\Delta S$ for the process $S_{\text {rhcmbic }} \longrightarrow$ $\mathrm{S}_{\text {monoclinic }}$
b. Which form of sulfur has the more ordered crystalline structure (has the smaller positional probability)?

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
02:25

Problem 46

Two crystalline forms of white phosphorus are known. Both forms contain $\mathrm{P}_{4}$ molecules, but the molecules are packed together in different ways. The $\alpha$ form is always obtained when the liquid freezes. However, below $-76.9^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$, the $\alpha$ form spontaneously converts to the $\beta$ form:
$$\mathrm{P}_{4}(s, \alpha) \longrightarrow \mathrm{P}_{4}(s, \beta)$$
a. Predict the signs of $\Delta H$ and $\Delta S$ for this process.
b. Predict which form of phosphorus has the more ordered crystalline structure (has the smaller positional probability).

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
01:45

Problem 47

Consider the reaction
$$2 \mathrm{O}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$$
a. Predict the signs of $\Delta H$ and $\Delta S$.
b. Would the reaction be more spontaneous at high or low temperatures?

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
01:41

Problem 48

Hydrogen cyanide is produced industrially by the following exothermic reaction:
$$2 \mathrm{NH}_{3}(g)+3 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g)+2 \mathrm{CH}_{4}(g) \stackrel{\mathrm{low}^{\circ} \mathrm{c}}{\mathrm{Pt} \cdot \mathrm{Rh}} 2 \mathrm{HCN}(g)+6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$$
Is the high temperature needed for thermodynamic or kinetic reasons?

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
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Problem 49

From data in Appendix 4 , calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}, \Delta S^{\circ}$, and $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for each of the following reactions at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
a. $\mathrm{CH}_{4}(g)+2 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$
b. $6 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \longrightarrow \mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_{6}(s)+6 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$
Glucose
c. $\mathrm{P}_{4} \mathrm{O}_{10}(s)+6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \longrightarrow 4 \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{4}(s)$
d. $\mathrm{HCl}(g)+\mathrm{NH}_{3}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{NH}_{4} \mathrm{Cl}(s)$

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
12:18

Problem 50

The major industrial use of hydrogen is in the production of ammonia by the Haber process:
$$3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{N}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{NH}_{3}(g)$$
a. Using data from Appendix 4, calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}, \Delta S^{\circ}$, and $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the Haber process reaction.
b. Is the reaction spontaneous at standard conditions?
c. At what temperatures is the reaction spontaneous at standard conditions? Assume $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature.

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
04:16

Problem 51

For the reaction at $298 \mathrm{~K}$,
$$2 \mathrm{NO}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}(g)$$
the values of $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ are $-58.03 \mathrm{~kJ}$ and $-176.6 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K}, \mathrm{re}-$
spectively. What is the value of $\Delta G^{\circ}$ at $298 \mathrm{~K}$ ? Assuming that $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature, at what temperature is $\Delta G^{\circ}=0 ?$ Is $\Delta G$ negative above or below this temperature?

Pam Owens
Pam Owens
Numerade Educator
03:23

Problem 52

At $100 .^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and $1.00 \mathrm{~atm}, \Delta H^{\circ}=40.6 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ for the vaporiza-
tion of water. Estimate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the vaporization of water at $90 .{ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and $110 .{ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Assume $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ at $100 .{ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and $1.00 \mathrm{~atm}$ do not depend on temperature.

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
04:03

Problem 53

Given the following data:
$$\begin{aligned}2 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{C}(s) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CH}_{4}(g) & & \Delta G^{\circ}=-51 \mathrm{~kJ} \\
2 \mathrm{H}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) & \Delta \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) & & \Delta G^{\circ}=-474 \mathrm{~kJ} \\
\mathrm{C}(s)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g) & \Delta G^{\circ} &=-394 \mathrm{~kJ}\end{aligned}$$
Calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for $\mathrm{CH}_{4}(\mathrm{~g})+2 \mathrm{O}_{2}(\mathrm{~g}) \rightarrow \mathrm{CO}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})+2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) .$

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
05:33

Problem 54

Given the following data:
$$\begin{array}{lr}2 \mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{6}(l)+15 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 12 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \\
\Delta G^{\circ}=-6399 \mathrm{~kJ} \\\mathrm{C}(s)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g) & \Delta G^{\circ}=-394 \mathrm{~kJ} \\
\mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+\frac{1}{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) & \Delta G^{\circ}=-237 \mathrm{~kJ}
\end{array}$$
calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the reaction
$$6 \mathrm{C}(s)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{6}(l)$$

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
07:45

Problem 54

Given the following data:
$$\begin{array}{r}2 \mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{6}(l)+15 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 12 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \\
\Delta G^{\circ}=-6399 \mathrm{~kJ} \\
\mathrm{C}(s)+\mathrm{U}_{2}(\mathrm{~g}) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CU}_{2}(g) & \Delta G^{\circ}=-394 \mathrm{~kJ} \\
\mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+\frac{1}{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) & \Delta G^{\circ}=-237 \mathrm{~kJ}
\end{array}$$
calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the reaction
$$6 \mathrm{C}(s)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{6}(l)$$

Yokshitha Reddy Bathula
Yokshitha Reddy Bathula
Numerade Educator
04:03

Problem 55

Given the following data:
$$\begin{aligned}2 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{C}(s) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CH}_{4}(g) & & \Delta G^{\circ}=-51 \mathrm{~kJ} \\
2 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) & \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) & & \Delta G^{\circ}=-474 \mathrm{~kJ} \\
\mathrm{C}(s)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g) & & \Delta G^{\circ}=-394 \mathrm{~kJ}
\end{aligned}$$
Calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for $\mathrm{CH}_{4}(g)+2 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \rightarrow \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l)$.

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
01:16

Problem 55

For the reaction
$$\mathrm{SF}_{4}(g)+\mathrm{F}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{SF}_{6}(g)$$
the value of $\Delta G^{\circ}$ is $-374 \mathrm{~kJ}$. Use this value and data from Appendix 4 to calculate the value of $\Delta G_{f}^{\circ}$ for $\mathrm{SF}_{4}(g)$.

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
03:02

Problem 56

The value of $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the reaction
$$2 \mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10}(g)+13 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 8 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+10 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l)$$
is $-5490 . \mathrm{kJ}$. Use this value and data from Appendix 4 to calculate the standard free energy of formation for $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10}(g)$.

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
02:09

Problem 57

Consider the reaction
$$\mathrm{Fe}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}(s)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{Fe}(s)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$$
a. Use $\Delta G_{f}^{\circ}$ values in Appendix 4 to calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for this reaction.
b. Is this reaction spontaneous under standard conditions at $298 \mathrm{~K} ?$
c. The value of $\Delta H^{\circ}$ for this reaction is $100 . \mathrm{kJ} .$ At what temperatures is this reaction spontaneous at standard conditions? Assume that $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature.

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
02:42

Problem 58

Consider the reaction
$$2 \mathrm{POCl}_{3}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{PCl}_{3}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$$
a. Calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for this reaction. The $\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}$ values for $\mathrm{POCl}_{3}(g)$ and $\mathrm{PCl}_{3}(g)$ are $-502 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ and $-270 . \mathrm{kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$, respectively.
b. Is this reaction spontaneous under standard conditions at $298 \mathrm{~K} ?$
c. The value of $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for this reaction is $179 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K} \cdot \mathrm{mol}$. At what temperatures is this reaction spontaneous at standard conditions? Assume that $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
View

Problem 59

Using data from Appendix 4, calculate $\Delta G$ for the reaction
$$\mathrm{NO}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{3}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{NO}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$$
for these conditions:
$$\begin{aligned}T &=298 \mathrm{~K} \\P_{\mathrm{NO}} &=1.00 \times 10^{-6} \mathrm{~atm}, P_{\mathrm{O}_{3}}=2.00 \times 10^{-6} \mathrm{~atm} \\P_{\mathrm{NO}_{2}} &=1.00 \times 10^{-7} \mathrm{~atm}, P_{\mathrm{O}_{2}}=1.00 \times 10^{-3} \mathrm{~atm}
\end{aligned}$$

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
View

Problem 60

Using data from Appendix 4, calculate $\Delta G$ for the reaction
$$2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~S}(g)+\mathrm{SO}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons 3 \mathrm{~S}_{\text {mombic }}(s)+2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$$
for the following conditions at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ :
$$\begin{array}{l}P_{\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~S}}=1.0 \times 10^{-4} \mathrm{~atm} \\P_{\mathrm{SO}_{2}}=1.0 \times 10^{-2} \mathrm{~atm} \\
P_{\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}}=3.0 \times 10^{-2} \mathrm{~atm}\end{array}$$

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
View

Problem 61

Consider the reaction
$$2 \mathrm{NO}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}(g)$$
For each of the following mixtures of reactants and products at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$, predict the direction in which the reaction will shift to reach equilibrium.
a. $P_{\mathrm{NO}_{2}}=P_{\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}}=1.0 \mathrm{~atm}$
b. $P_{\mathrm{NO}_{2}}=0.21 \mathrm{~atm}, P_{\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}}=0.50 \mathrm{~atm}$
c. $P_{\mathrm{NO}_{2}}=0.29 \mathrm{~atm}, P_{\mathrm{N}_{\mathrm{O}} \mathrm{O}_{4}}=1.6 \mathrm{~atm}$

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
View

Problem 62

Consider the following reaction:
$$\mathrm{N}_{2}(g)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons 2 \mathrm{NH}_{3}(g)$$Calculate $\Delta G$ for this reaction under the following conditions (assume an uncertainty of $\pm 1$ in all quantities):
a. $T=298 \mathrm{~K}, P_{\mathrm{N}_{2}}=P_{\mathrm{H}_{2}}=200 \mathrm{~atm}, P_{\mathrm{NH}_{3}}=50 \mathrm{~atm}$
b. $T=298 \mathrm{~K}, P_{\mathrm{N}_{2}}=200 \mathrm{~atm}, P_{\mathrm{H}_{2}}=600 \mathrm{~atm}, P_{\mathrm{NH}_{3}}=200 \mathrm{~atm}$

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
00:54

Problem 63

One of the reactions that destroys ozone in the upper atmosphere is
$$\mathrm{NO}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{3}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{NO}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$$
Using data from Appendix 4, calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ and $K$ (at $298 \mathrm{~K}$ ) for this reaction.

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
09:16

Problem 64

Hydrogen sulfide can be removed from natural gas by the reaction
$$2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~S}(g)+\mathrm{SO}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons 3 \mathrm{~S}(s)+2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$$
Calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ and $K$ (at $298 \mathrm{~K}$ ) for this reaction. Would this reaction be favored at a high or low temperature?

Yokshitha Reddy Bathula
Yokshitha Reddy Bathula
Numerade Educator
02:11

Problem 65

Consider the following reaction at $25.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ :
$$2 \mathrm{NO}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}(g)$$
The values of $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ are $-58.03 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ and $-176.6 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K}$.
mol, respectively. Calculate the value of $K$ at $25.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Assuming $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ are temperature independent, estimate the value of $K$ at $100.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.

Shazia Naz
Shazia Naz
Numerade Educator
03:16

Problem 66

The standard free energies of formation and the standard enthalpies of formation at $298 \mathrm{~K}$ for difluoroacetylene $\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{~F}_{2}\right)$ and hexafluorobenzene $\left(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{~F}_{6}\right)$ are For the following reaction:
$$\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{~F}_{6}(g) \rightleftharpoons 3 \mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{~F}_{2}(g)$$
a. calculate $\Delta S^{\circ}$ at $298 \mathrm{~K}$.
b. calculate $K$ at $298 \mathrm{~K}$.
c. estimate $K$ at 3000. K, assuming $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
04:01

Problem 67

Calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)+\frac{1}{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$ at $600 . \mathrm{K}$
using the following data:
$\mathrm{H}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \quad K=2.3 \times 10^{6}$ at $600 . \mathrm{K}$
$2 \mathrm{H}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons 2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g) \quad K=1.8 \times 10^{37}$ at 600. $\mathrm{K}$

David Collins
David Collins
Numerade Educator
03:44

Problem 68

The Ostwald process for the commercial production of nitric acid involves three steps:
a. Calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}, \Delta S^{\circ}, \Delta G^{\circ}$, and $K$ (at $298 \mathrm{~K}$ ) for each of the three steps in the Ostwald process (see Appendix 4 ).
b. Calculate the equilibrium constant for the first step at $825^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$, assuming $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature.
c. Is there a thermodynamic reason for the high temperature in the first step, assuming standard conditions?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:49

Problem 69

Consider the following reaction at $800 . \mathrm{K}$ :
$$\mathrm{N}_{2}(g)+3 \mathrm{~F}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{NF}_{3}(g)$$
An equilibrium mixture contains the following partial pressures:
$P_{\mathrm{N}_{2}}=0.021 \mathrm{~atm}, P_{\mathrm{F}_{2}}=0.063 \mathrm{~atm}, P_{\mathrm{NF}_{3}}=0.48 \mathrm{~atm} .$ Calculate
$\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the reaction at $800 . \mathrm{K}$.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
05:07

Problem 70

Consider the following reaction at $298 \mathrm{~K}$ :
$$2 \mathrm{SO}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{SO}_{3}(g)$$
An equilibrium mixture contains $\mathrm{O}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ and $\mathrm{SO}_{3}(g)$ at partial pressures of $0.50$ atm and $2.0$ atm, respectively. Using data from Appendix 4 , determine the equilibrium partial pressure of $\mathrm{SO}_{2}$ in the mixture. Will this reaction be most favored at a high or a low temperature, assuming standard conditions?

Shazia Naz
Shazia Naz
Numerade Educator
02:49

Problem 71

Consider the relationship
$$\ln (K)=\frac{-\Delta H^{\circ}}{R T}+\frac{\Delta S^{\circ}}{R}$$
The equilibrium constant for some hypothetical process was determined as a function of temperature (Kelvin) with the results plotted below.
From the plot, determine the values of $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for this process. What would be the major difference in the $\ln (K)$ versus $1 / T$ plot for an endothermic process as compared to an exothermic process?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:26

Problem 72

The equilibrium constant $K$ for the reaction
$$2 \mathrm{Cl}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{Cl}_{2}(g)$$
was measured as a function of temperature (Kelvin). A graph of $\ln (K)$ versus $1 / T$ for this reaction gives a straight line with a slope of $1.352 \times 10^{4} \mathrm{~K}$ and a $y$ -intercept of $-14.51$. Determine the values of $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for this reaction. See Exercise 71 .

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
01:13

Problem 73

A green plant synthesizes glucose by photosynthesis, as shown in the reaction
$$6 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \longrightarrow \mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_{6}(s)+6 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$$
Animals use glucose as a source of energy:
$$\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_{6}(s)+6 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 6 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l)$$
If we were to assume that both these processes occur to the same extent in a cyclic process, what thermodynamic property must have a nonzero value?

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
07:26

Problem 74

Human DNA contains almost twice as much information as is needed to code for all the substances produced in the body. Likewise, the digital data sent from Voyager II contained one redundant bit out of every two bits of information. The Hubble space telescope transmits three redundant bits for every bit of information. How is entropy related to the transmission of information? What do you think is accomplished by having so many redundant bits of information in both DNA and the space probes?

Ibrahim Abdullahi
Ibrahim Abdullahi
Numerade Educator
00:46

Problem 75

Using data from Appendix 4, calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}, \Delta S^{\circ}$, and $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the following reactions that produce acetic acid: Which reaction would you choose as a commercial method for producing acetic acid $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}\right)$ at standard conditions? What temperature conditions would you choose for the reaction? Assume $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature.

Shazia Naz
Shazia Naz
Numerade Educator
06:04

Problem 76

The enthalpy of vaporization of ethanol is $38.7 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ at its boiling point $\left(78^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)$. Determine $\Delta S_{\text {sys }}, \Delta S_{\text {surr }}$ and $\Delta S_{\text {univ }}$ when $1.00$ mol ethanol is vaporized at $78^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and $1.00 \mathrm{~atm}$.

Ibrahim Abdullahi
Ibrahim Abdullahi
Numerade Educator
01:26

Problem 77

Carbon monoxide is toxic because it bonds much more strongly to the iron in hemoglobin (Hgb) than does $\mathrm{O}_{2}$. Consider the following reactions and approximate standard free energy changes:
$$\begin{array}{clr}\mathrm{Hgb}+\mathrm{O}_{2} \longrightarrow \mathrm{HgbO}_{2} & \Delta G^{\circ}=-70 \mathrm{~kJ} \\
\mathrm{Hgb}+\mathrm{CO} \longrightarrow \mathrm{HgbCO} & \Delta G^{\circ}=-80 \mathrm{~kJ}
\end{array}$$
Using these data, estimate the equilibrium constant value at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ for the following reaction:
$$\mathrm{HgbO}_{2}+\mathrm{CO} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{HgbCO}+\mathrm{O}_{2}$$

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
View

Problem 78

Many biochemical reactions that occur in cells require relatively high concentrations of potassium ion $\left(\mathrm{K}^{+}\right)$. The concentration of $\mathrm{K}^{+}$ in muscle cells is about $0.15 M$. The concentration of $\mathrm{K}^{+}$ in blood plasma is about $0.0050 M .$ The high internal concentration in cells is maintained by pumping $\mathrm{K}^{+}$ from the plasma. How much work must be done to transport $1.0 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~K}^{+}$ from the blood to the inside of a muscle cell at $37^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$, normal body temperature? When $1.0 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~K}^{+}$ is transferred from blood to the cells, do any other ions have to be transported? Why or why not?

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
View

Problem 79

Cells use the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate, abbreviated as ATP, as a source of energy. Symbolically, this reaction can be written as
$$\mathrm{ATP}(a q)+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \longrightarrow \mathrm{ADP}(a q)+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{PO}_{4}^{-}(a q)$$
where ADP represents adenosine diphosphate. For this reaction, $\Delta G^{\circ}=-30.5 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$
a. Calculate $K$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
b. If all the free energy from the metabolism of glucose
$$\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_{6}(s)+6 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 6 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)+6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l)$$
goes into forming ATP from ADP, how many ATP molecules can be produced for every molecule of glucose?
c. Much of the ATP formed from metabolic processes is used to provide energy for transport of cellular components. What amount (mol) of ATP must be hydrolyzed to provide the energy for the transport of $1.0 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~K}^{+}$ from the blood to the inside of a muscle cell at $37^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ as described in Exercise $78 ?$

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
02:22

Problem 80

One reaction that occurs in human metabolism is
For this reaction $\Delta G^{\circ}=14 \mathrm{~kJ}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
a. Calculate $K$ for this reaction at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
b. In a living cell this reaction is coupled with the hydrolysis of ATP. (See Exercise 79.) Calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ and $K$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ for the following reaction:
Glutamic acid $(a q)+\mathrm{ATP}(a q)+\mathrm{NH}_{3}(a q) \rightleftharpoons$
Glutamine $(a q)+\mathrm{ADP}(a q)+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{PO}_{4}^{-}(a q)$

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
01:33

Problem 81

When most biologic enzymes are heated, they lose their catalytic activity. The change
Original enzyme $\longrightarrow$ new form
that occurs on heating is endothermic and spontaneous. Is the structure of the original enzyme or its new form more ordered (has the smaller positional probability)? Explain.

David Collins
David Collins
Numerade Educator
02:43

Problem 82

The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are composed of smaller repeating units called nucleotides. The reaction to form a phosphate-ester linkage between two nucleotides can be approximated as follows:
Would you predict the formation of a dinucleotide from two nucleotides to be a spontaneous process? How can you justify the existence of nucleic acids in light of the second law of thermodynamics?

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
02:23

Problem 83

Using Appendix 4 and the following data, determine $S^{\circ}$ for $\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{CO})_{5}(g)$
$$\begin{aligned}\mathrm{Fe}(s)+5 \mathrm{CO}(g) & \longrightarrow \mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{CO})_{5}(g) & & \Delta S^{\circ}=? \\
\mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{CO})_{5}(l) & \longrightarrow \mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{CO})_{5}(g) & & \Delta S^{\circ}=107 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K} \\
\mathrm{Fe}(s)+5 \mathrm{CO}(g) & \longrightarrow \mathrm{Fe}(\mathrm{CO})_{5}(l) & & \Delta S^{\circ}=-677 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K}
\end{aligned}$$

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:09

Problem 84

Some water is placed in a coffee-cup calorimeter. When $1.0 \mathrm{~g}$ of an ionic solid is added, the temperature of the solution increases from $21.5^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ to $24.2^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ as the solid dissolves. For the dissolving process, what are the signs for $\Delta S_{\text {sys }}, \Delta S_{\text {surr }}$, and $\Delta S_{\text {univ }}$ ?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:56

Problem 85

Consider the following system at equilibrium at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ :
$$\mathrm{PCl}_{3}(g)+\mathrm{Cl}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{PCl}_{5}(g) \quad \Delta G^{\circ}=-92.50 \mathrm{~kJ}$$
What will happen to the ratio of partial pressure of $\mathrm{PCl}_{5}$ to partial pressure of $\mathrm{PCl}_{3}$ if the temperature is raised? Explain completely.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:40

Problem 86

Calculate the entropy change for the vaporization of liquid methane and liquid hexane using the following data. Compare the molar volume of gaseous methane at $112 \mathrm{~K}$ with that of gaseous hexane at $342 \mathrm{~K}$. How do the differences in molar volume affect the values of $\Delta S_{v p}$ for these liquids?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
02:56

Problem 87

As $\mathrm{O}_{2}(I)$ is cooled at $1 \mathrm{~atm}$, it freezes at $54.5 \mathrm{~K}$ to form solid $\mathrm{I}$. At a lower temperature, solid I rearranges to solid II, which has a different crystal structure. Thermal measurements show that $\Delta H$ for the $\mathrm{I} \rightarrow$ II phase transition is $-743.1 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{mol}$, and $\Delta S$ for the same transition is $-17.0 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K} \cdot \mathrm{mol}$. At what temperature are solids I and II in equilibrium?

Shazia Naz
Shazia Naz
Numerade Educator
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Problem 88

Consider the following reaction: $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)+\mathrm{Cl}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g) \rightleftharpoons 2 \mathrm{HOCl}(g) \quad K_{298}=0.090$
For $\mathrm{Cl}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$,
$\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}=97.9 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$
$\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}=80.3 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$
$S^{\circ}=266.1 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K} \cdot \mathrm{mol}$
a. Calculate $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the reaction using the equation $\Delta G^{\circ}=$ $-R T \ln (K)$
b. Use bond energy values (Table 8.4) to estimate $\Delta H^{\circ}$ for the reaction.
c. Use the results from parts a and $b$ to estimate $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for the reaction.
d. Estimate $\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}$ and $S^{\circ}$ for $\mathrm{HOCl}(g)$.
e. Estimate the value of $K$ at $500 . \mathrm{K}$.
f. Calculate $\Delta G$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ when $P_{\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}}=18$ torr, $P_{\mathrm{Cl}_{2} \mathrm{O}}=2.0$ torr, and $P_{\mathrm{HOCl}}=0.10$ torr.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
01:38

Problem 89

Using the following data, calculate the value of $K_{\mathrm{sp}}$ for $\mathrm{Ba}\left(\mathrm{NO}_{3}\right)_{2}$, one of the least soluble of the common nitrate salts.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:45

Problem 90

In the text, the equation
$$\Delta G=\Delta G^{\circ}+R T \ln (Q)$$
was derived for gaseous reactions where the quantities in $Q$ were expressed in units of pressure. We also can use units of $\mathrm{mol} / \mathrm{L}$ for the quantities in $Q$, specifically for aqueous reactions. With this in mind, consider the reaction
$$\mathrm{HF}(a q) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{H}^{+}(a q)+\mathrm{F}^{-}(a q)$$
for which $K_{\mathrm{a}}=7.2 \times 10^{-4}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Calculate $\Delta G$ for the reaction under the following conditions at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
a. $[\mathrm{HF}]=\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]=\left[\mathrm{F}^{-}\right]=1.0 \mathrm{M}$
b. $[\mathrm{HF}]=0.98 M,\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]=\left[\mathrm{F}^{-}\right]=2.7 \times 10^{-2} M$
c. $[\mathrm{HF}]=\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]=\left[\mathrm{F}^{-}\right]=1.0 \times 10^{-5} \mathrm{M}$
d. $[\mathrm{HF}]=\left[\mathrm{F}^{-}\right]=0.27 M,\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]=7.2 \times 10^{-4} M$
e. $[\mathrm{HF}]=0.52 M,\left[\mathrm{~F}^{-}\right]=0.67 M,\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]=1.0 \times 10^{-3} M$
Based on the calculated $\Delta G$ values, in what direction will the reaction shift to reach equilibrium for each of the five sets of conditions?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:57

Problem 91

Consider the reactions
$$\begin{aligned}\mathrm{Ni}^{2+}(a q)+6 \mathrm{NH}_{3}(a q) & \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ni}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)_{6}^{2+}(a q) \\
\mathrm{Ni}^{2+}(a q)+3 \mathrm{en}(a q) & \longrightarrow \mathrm{Ni}(\mathrm{en})_{3}^{2+}(a q)\end{aligned}$$
where
$$\text { en }=\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~N}-\mathrm{CH}_{2}-\mathrm{CH}_{2}-\mathrm{NH}_{2}$$
The $\Delta H$ values for the two reactions are quite similar, yet $K_{\text {reaction } 2}>K_{\text {reaction } 1 .}$ Explain.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:48

Problem 92

Use the equation in Exercise 71 to determine $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for the autoionization of water:
$$\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{H}^{+}(a q)+\mathrm{OH}^{-}(a q)$$

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
07:49

Problem 93

Consider the reaction
$$\mathrm{Fe}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}(s)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{Fe}(s)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)$$
Assuming $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature, calculate the temperature where $K=1.00$ for this reaction.

Shazia Naz
Shazia Naz
Numerade Educator
01:14

Problem 94

Consider two reactions for the production of ethanol:
$$\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4}(g)+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{OH}(l) \\
\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6}(g)+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{OH}(l)+\mathrm{H}_{2}(g)
\end{array}$$
Which would be the more thermodynamically feasible at standard conditions? Why?

Ricajoy Montero
Ricajoy Montero
Numerade Educator
01:54

Problem 95

Consider two perfectly insulated vessels. Vessel 1 initially contains an ice cube at $0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and water at $0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Vessel 2 initially contains an ice cube at $0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and a saltwater solution at $0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Consider the process $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s) \rightarrow \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l)$
a. Determine the sign of $\Delta S, \Delta S_{\text {surr }}$, and $\Delta S_{\text {univ }}$ for the process in vessel 1 .
b. Determine the sign of $\Delta S, \Delta S_{\text {surt }}$, and $\Delta S_{\text {univ }}$ for the process in vessel 2 . (Hint: Think about the effect that a salt has on the freezing point of a solvent.)

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
05:28

Problem 96

Liquid water at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ is introduced into an evacuated, insulated vessel. Identify the signs of the following thermodynamic functions for the process that occurs: $\Delta H, \Delta S, \Delta T_{\text {water }}, \Delta S_{\text {surt }}, \Delta S_{\text {univ }}$.

Shazia Naz
Shazia Naz
Numerade Educator
02:35

Problem 97

Using data from Appendix 4, calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}, \Delta G^{\circ}$, and $K$ (at 298
K) for the production of ozone from oxygen:
$$3 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons 2 \mathrm{O}_{3}(g)$$
At $30 \mathrm{~km}$ above the surface of the earth, the temperature is about
230. $\mathrm{K}$ and the partial pressure of oxygen is about $1.0 \times 10^{-3}$ atm. Estimate the partial pressure of ozone in equilibrium with oxygen at $30 \mathrm{~km}$ above the earth's surface. Is it reasonable to assume that the equilibrium between oxygen and ozone is maintained under these conditions? Explain.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
07:23

Problem 98

Entropy can be calculated by a relationship proposed by Ludwig Boltzmann:
$$S=k \ln (W)$$
where $k=1.38 \times 10^{-23} \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K}$ and $W$ is the number of ways a particular state can be obtained. (This equation is engraved on Boltzmann's tombstone.) Calculate $S$ for the five arrangements of particles in Table $17.1 .$

Dr. Satish Ingale
Dr. Satish Ingale
Numerade Educator
02:39

Problem 99

a. Using the free energy profile for a simple one-step reaction, show that at equilibrium $K=k_{\mathrm{f}} / k_{\mathrm{r}}$, where $k_{\mathrm{f}}$ and $k_{\mathrm{r}}$ are the rate constants for the forward and reverse reactions. Hint: Use the relationship $\Delta G^{\circ}=-R T \ln (K)$ and represent $k_{\mathrm{f}}$ and $k_{\mathrm{r}}$ using the Arrhenius equation $\left(k=A e^{-E_{2} / R T}\right)$.
b. Why is the following statement false? "A catalyst can increase the rate of a forward reaction but not the rate of the reverse reaction."

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
06:09

Problem 100

Consider the reaction
$$\mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{Br}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons 2 \mathrm{HBr}(g)$$
where $\Delta H^{\circ}=-103.8 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol} .$ In a particular experiment, equal moles of $\mathrm{H}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ at $1.00 \mathrm{~atm}$ and $\mathrm{Br}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})$ at $1.00 \mathrm{~atm}$ were mixed in a $1.00$ -L flask at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and allowed to reach equilibrium. Then the molecules of $\mathrm{H}_{2}$ at equilibrium were counted using a very sensitive technique, and $1.10 \times 10^{13}$ molecules were found. For this reaction, calculate the values of $K, \Delta G^{\circ}$, and $\Delta S^{\circ}$.

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
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Problem 101

Consider the system
$$\mathrm{A}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{B}(g)$$
at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
a. Assuming that $G_{\mathrm{A}}^{\circ}=8996 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{mol}$ and $G_{\mathrm{B}}^{\circ}=11,718 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{mol}$, cal-
culate the value of the equilibrium constant for this reaction.
b. Calculate the equilibrium pressures that result if $1.00 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~A}(\mathrm{~g})$ at $1.00$ atm and $1.00 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~B}(g)$ at $1.00 \mathrm{~atm}$ are mixed at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
c. Show by calculations that $\Delta G=0$ at equilibrium.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
02:04

Problem 102

The equilibrium constant for a certain reaction decreases from $8.84$ to $3.25 \times 10^{-2}$ when the temperature increases from $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ to $75^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Estimate the temperature where $K=1.00$ for this reaction. Estimate the value of $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for this reaction. (Hint: Manipulate the equation in Exercise 71.)

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:51

Problem 103

If wet silver carbonate is dried in a stream of hot air, the air must have a certain concentration level of carbon dioxide to prevent silver carbonate from decomposing by the reaction
$$\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{3}(s) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{O}(s)+\mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)$$
$\Delta H^{\circ}$ for this reaction is $79.14 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ in the temperature range of 25 to $125^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Given that the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in equilibrium with pure solid silver carbonate is $6.23 \times 10^{-3}$ torr at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$, calculate the partial pressure of $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$ necessary to prevent decomposition of $\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{3}$ at $110 .{ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. (Hint: Manipulate the equation in Exercise 71 .)

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
09:25

Problem 104

Carbon tetrachloride $\left(\mathrm{CCl}_{4}\right)$ and benzene $\left(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{6}\right)$ form ideal solutions. Consider an equimolar solution of $\mathrm{CCl}_{4}$ and $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{6}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. The vapor above the solution is collected and condensed. Using the following data, determine the composition in mole fraction of the condensed vapor.

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
02:26

Problem 105

Some nonelectrolyte solute (molar mass $=142 \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mol}$ ) was dissolved in $150 . \mathrm{mL}$ of a solvent (density $=0.879 \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{cm}^{3}$ ). The elevated boiling point of the solution was $355.4 \mathrm{~K}$. What mass of solute was dissolved in the solvent? For the solvent, the enthalpy of vaporization is $33.90 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$, the entropy of vaporization is $95.95$ $\mathrm{J} / \mathrm{K} \cdot \mathrm{mol}$, and the boiling-point elevation constant is $2.5 \mathrm{~K} \cdot \mathrm{kg} / \mathrm{mol}$.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
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Problem 106

You have a $1.00-\mathrm{L}$ sample of hot water $\left(90.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)$ sitting open in a $25.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ room. Eventually the water cools to $25.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ while the temperature of the room remains unchanged. Calculate $\Delta S_{\text {surn }}$ for this process. Assume the density of water is $1.00 \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{cm}^{3}$ over this temperature range, and the heat capacity of water is constant over this temperature range and equal to $75.4 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K} \cdot \mathrm{mol}$.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
01:35

Problem 107

Consider a weak acid, HX. If a $0.10 M$ solution of HX has a pH of $5.83$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$, what is $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the acid's dissociation reaction at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ ?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
02:39

Problem 108

Sodium chloride is added to water (at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ ) until it is saturated. Calculate the $\mathrm{Cl}^{-}$ concentration in such a solution.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
02:03

Problem 109

For the equilibrium
$$\mathrm{A}(g)+2 \mathrm{~B}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{C}(g)$$
the initial concentrations are $[\mathrm{A}]=[\mathrm{B}]=[\mathrm{C}]=0.100 \mathrm{~atm} .$ Once equilibrium has been established, it is found that $[\mathrm{C}]=0.040 \mathrm{~atm}$. What is $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for this reaction at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ ?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
02:10

Problem 110

What is the $\mathrm{pH}$ of a $0.125 \mathrm{M}$ solution of the weak base $\mathrm{B}$ if $\Delta H^{\circ}=-28.0 \mathrm{~kJ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}=-175 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K}$ for the following equi-
librium reaction at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ ?$$\mathrm{B}(a q)+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{BH}^{+}(a q)+\mathrm{OH}^{-}(a q)$$

David Collins
David Collins
Numerade Educator
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Problem 111

Impure nickel, refined by smelting sulfide ores in a blast furnace, can be converted into metal from $99.90 \%$ to $99.99 \%$ purity by the Mond process. The primary reaction involved in the Mond process is
$$\mathrm{Ni}(s)+4 \mathrm{CO}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{Ni}(\mathrm{CO})_{4}(g)$$
a. Without referring to Appendix 4, predict the sign of $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for the above reaction. Explain.
b. The spontaneity of the above reaction is temperature dependent. Predict the sign of $\Delta S_{\text {sarr }}$ for this reaction. Explain.
c. For $\mathrm{Ni}(\mathrm{CO})_{4}(g), \Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\circ}=-607 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ and $S^{\circ}=417 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K} \cdot \mathrm{mol}$
at $298 \mathrm{~K}$. Using these values and data in Appendix 4, calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for the above reaction.
d. Calculate the temperature at which $\Delta G^{\circ}=0(K=1)$ for the above reaction, assuming that $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature.
e. The first step of the Mond process involves equilibrating impure nickel with $\mathrm{CO}(\mathrm{g})$ and $\mathrm{Ni}(\mathrm{CO})_{4}(g)$ at about $50^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. The purpose of this step is to convert as much nickel as possible into the gas phase. Calculate the equilibrium constant for the preceding reaction at $50 .{ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
f. In the second step of the Mond process, the gaseous $\mathrm{Ni}(\mathrm{CO})_{4}$ is isolated and heated to $227^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. The purpose of this step is to deposit as much nickel as possible as pure solid (the reverse of the preceding reaction). Calculate the equilibrium constant for the preceding reaction at $227^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
g. Why is temperature increased for the second step of the Mond process?
h. The Mond process relies on the volatility of $\mathrm{Ni}(\mathrm{CO})_{4}$ for its success. Only pressures and temperatures at which $\mathrm{Ni}(\mathrm{CO})_{4}$ is a gas are useful. A recently developed variation of the Mond process carries out the first step at higher pressures and a temperature of $152^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Estimate the maximum pressure of $\mathrm{Ni}(\mathrm{CO})_{4}(g)$ that can be attained before the gas will liquefy at $152^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. The boiling point for $\mathrm{Ni}(\mathrm{CO})_{4}$ is $42^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and the enthalpy of vaporization is $29.0 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator