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Chemistry

Steven S. Zumdahl, Susan A. Zumdahl

Chapter 20

The Representative Elements - all with Video Answers

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Chapter Questions

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Problem 1

Although the earth was formed from the same interstellar material as the sun, there is little elemental hydrogen $\left(\mathrm{H}_{2}\right)$ in the earth's atmosphere. Explain.

Michaelle Lubich
Michaelle Lubich
Numerade Educator
01:13

Problem 2

List two major industrial uses of hydrogen.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
02:23

Problem 3

How do the acidities of the aqueous solutions of the alkaline earth metal ions $\left(\mathrm{M}^{2+}\right)$ change in going down the group?

Christina Lollar
Christina Lollar
Numerade Educator
06:06

Problem 4

Diagonal relationships in the periodic table exist as well as the vertical relationships. For example, Be and Al are similar in some of their properties as are $\mathrm{B}$ and $\mathrm{Si}$. Rationalize why these diagonal relationships hold for properties such as size, ionization energy, and electron affinity.

James Irizarry
James Irizarry
Numerade Educator
02:21

Problem 5

Atomic size seems to play an important role in explaining some of the differences between the first element in a group and the subsequent group elements. Explain.

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
01:21

Problem 6

Silicon carbide $(\mathrm{SiC})$ is an extremely hard substance. Propose a structure for $\mathrm{SiC}$.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
06:57

Problem 7

In most compounds, the solid phase is denser than the liquid phase. Why isn't this true for water?

Michaelle Lubich
Michaelle Lubich
Numerade Educator
02:54

Problem 8

What is nitrogen fixation? Give some examples of nitrogen fixation.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
02:07

Problem 9

All the Group $1 \mathrm{~A}$ and $2 \mathrm{~A}$ metals are produced by electrolysis of molten salts. Why?

Sarah Ganrude
Sarah Ganrude
Numerade Educator
04:42

Problem 10

Why are the tin(IV) halides more volatile than the tin(II) halides?

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
05:06

Problem 11

Hydrogen is produced commercially by the reaction of methane with steam:
$$\mathrm{CH}_{4}(g)+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{CO}(g)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g)$$
a. Calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for this reaction (use the data in Appendix 4).
b. What temperatures will favor product formation at standard conditions? Assume $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature.

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
12:18

Problem 12

The major industrial use of hydrogen is in the production of ammonia by the Haber process:
$$3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{N}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{NH}_{3}(g)$$
a. Using data from Appendix 4, calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}, \Delta S^{\circ}$, and $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the Haber process reaction.
b. Is the reaction spontaneous at standard conditions?
c. At what temperatures is the reaction spontaneous at standard conditions? Assume $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ do not depend on temperature.

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
04:18

Problem 13

Write balanced equations describing the reaction of lithium metal with each of the following: $\mathrm{O}_{2}, \mathrm{~S}, \mathrm{Cl}_{2}, \mathrm{P}_{4}, \mathrm{H}_{2}, \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$, and $\mathrm{HCl}$.

Christina Lollar
Christina Lollar
Numerade Educator
02:54

Problem 14

The electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride (brine) is an important industrial process for the production of chlorine and sodium hydroxide. In fact, this process is the second largest consumer of electricity in the United States, after the production of aluminum. Write a balanced equation for the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride (hydrogen gas is also produced).

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
00:33

Problem 15

What are the three types of hydrides? How do they differ?

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
02:08

Problem 16

Reference Table $20.5$ and give examples of the three types of alkali metal oxides that form. How do they differ?

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
01:10

Problem 17

Many lithium salts are hygroscopic (absorb water), but the corresponding salts of the other alkali metals are not. Why are lithium salts different from the others?

Sarah Ganrude
Sarah Ganrude
Numerade Educator
02:40

Problem 18

What will be the atomic number of the next alkali metal to be discovered? How would you expect the physical properties of the next alkali metal to compare with the properties of the other alkali metals summarized in Table $20.4 ?$

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
02:45

Problem 19

One harmful effect of acid rain is the deterioration of structures
and statues made of marble or limestone, both of which are essentially calcium carbonate. The reaction of calcium carbonate with sulfuric acid yields carbon dioxide, water, and calcium sulfate. Because calcium sulfate is marginally soluble in water, part of the object is washed away by the rain. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of sulfuric acid with calcium carbonate.

Sarah Ganrude
Sarah Ganrude
Numerade Educator
07:28

Problem 20

Write balanced equations describing the reaction of $\mathrm{Sr}$ with each of the following: $\mathrm{O}_{2}, \mathrm{~S}, \mathrm{Cl}_{2}, \mathrm{P}_{4}, \mathrm{H}_{2}, \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$, and $\mathrm{HCl}$.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
00:41

Problem 21

The U.S. Public Health Service recommends the fluoridation of water as a means for preventing tooth decay. The recommended concentration is $1 \mathrm{mg} \mathrm{F}^{-}$ per liter. The presence of calcium ions in hard water can precipitate the added fluoride. What is the maximum molarity of calcium ions in hard water if the fluoride concentration is at the USPHS recommended level? ( $K_{\text {sp }}$ for $\left.\mathrm{CaF}_{2}=4.0 \times 10^{-11} .\right)$

Sisi Gao
Sisi Gao
Numerade Educator
02:35

Problem 22

Slaked lime, $\mathrm{Ca}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}$, is used to soften hard water by removing calcium ions from hard water through the reaction
$\mathrm{Ca}(\mathrm{OH})_{2}(a q)+\mathrm{Ca}^{2+}(a q)+2 \mathrm{HCO}_{3}^{-}(a q) \rightarrow$
Although $\mathrm{CaCO}_{3}(s)$ is considered insoluble, some of it does dissolve in aqueous solutions. Calculate the molar solubility of $\mathrm{CaCO}_{3}$ in water $\left(K_{\mathrm{sp}}=8.7 \times 10^{-9}\right)$

Bin Chen
Bin Chen
Numerade Educator
02:22

Problem 23

What mass of barium is produced when molten $\mathrm{BaCl}_{2}$ is electrolyzed by a current of $2.50 \times 10^{5} \mathrm{~A}$ for $6.00 \mathrm{~h}$ ?

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
00:52

Problem 24

Electrolysis of an alkaline earth metal chloride using a current of $5.00 \mathrm{~A}$ for $748 \mathrm{~s}$ deposits $0.471 \mathrm{~g}$ of metal at the cathode. What is the identity of the alkaline earth metal chloride?

David Collins
David Collins
Numerade Educator
01:34

Problem 25

Beryllium shows some covalent characteristics in some of its compounds, unlike the other alkaline earth halides. Give a possible explanation for this phenomenon.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
05:14

Problem 26

What ions are found in hard water? What happens when water is "softened"?

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
01:03

Problem 27

Assume that element 113 has been produced. What is the expected electron configuration for element $113 ?$ What oxidation states would be exhibited by element 113 in its compounds?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
04:02

Problem 28

Thallium and indium form $+1$ and $+3$ oxidation states when in compounds. Predict the formulas of the possible compounds between thallium and oxygen and between indium and chlorine. Name the compounds.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:15

Problem 29

Boron hydrides were once evaluated for possible use as rocket fuels. Complete and balance the following equation for the combustion of diborane.
$$\mathrm{B}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6}+\mathrm{O}_{2} \longrightarrow \mathrm{B}(\mathrm{OH})_{3}$$

Anand Jangid
Anand Jangid
Numerade Educator
03:03

Problem 30

Elemental boron is produced by reduction of boron oxide with magnesium to give boron and magnesium oxide. Write a balanced equation for this reaction.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:56

Problem 31

Write equations describing the reactions of Ga with each of the following: $\mathrm{F}_{2}, \mathrm{O}_{2}, \mathrm{~S}$, and $\mathrm{HCl}$.

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
04:10

Problem 32

Write a balanced equation describing the reaction of aluminum metal with concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide.

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
00:30

Problem 33

$\mathrm{Al}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}$ is amphoteric. What does this mean?

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
01:27

Problem 34

What are three-centered bonds?

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
03:29

Problem 35

Discuss the importance of the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{C}$ and $\mathrm{Si}-\mathrm{Si}$ bond strengths and of $\pi$ bonding to the properties of carbon and silicon.

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
02:04

Problem 36

Besides the central atom, what are the differences between $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$ and $\mathrm{SiO}_{2}$ ?

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
06:55

Problem 37

The three most stable oxides of carbon are carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide $\left(\mathrm{CO}_{2}\right)$, and carbon suboxide $\left(\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{2}\right)$. The space-filling models for these three compounds are For each oxide, draw the Lewis structure, predict the molecular structure, and describe the bonding (in terms of the hybrid orbitals for the carbon atoms).

Teesta Dasgupta
Teesta Dasgupta
University of Pittsburgh - Main Campus
01:11

Problem 38

Carbon and sulfur form compounds with the formulas $\mathrm{CS}_{2}$ and $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{~S}_{2} .$ Draw Lewis structures and predict the shapes of these two compounds.

Anand Jangid
Anand Jangid
Numerade Educator
03:03

Problem 39

Silicon is produced for the chemical and electronics industries by the following reactions. Give the balanced equation for each reaction.
a. $\mathrm{SiO}_{2}(s)+\mathrm{C}(s) \longrightarrow \mathrm{Si}(s)+\mathrm{CO}(g)$
b. Silicon tetrachloride is reacted with very pure magnesium, producing silicon and magnesium chloride.
c. $\mathrm{Na}_{2} \mathrm{SiF}_{6}(s)+\mathrm{Na}(s) \longrightarrow \mathrm{Si}(s)+\mathrm{NaF}(s)$

Christina Lollar
Christina Lollar
Numerade Educator
02:23

Problem 40

Write equations describing the reactions of Sn with each of the following: $\mathrm{Cl}_{2}, \mathrm{O}_{2}$, and $\mathrm{HCl}$.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:48

Problem 41

The compound $\mathrm{Pb}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{4}$ (red lead) contains a mixture of lead(II) and lead(IV) oxidation states. What is the mole ratio of lead(II) to lead(IV) in $\mathrm{Pb}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{4}$ ?

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
05:47

Problem 42

Tin forms compounds in the $+2$ and $+4$ oxidation states. Therefore, when tin reacts with fluorine, two products are possible. Write balanced equations for the production of the two tin halide compounds and name them.

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
02:41

Problem 43

The oxyanion of nitrogen in which it has the highest oxidation state is the nitrate ion $\left(\mathrm{NO}_{3}^{-}\right)$. The corresponding oxyanion of phosphorus is $\mathrm{PO}_{4}^{3-}$. The $\mathrm{NO}_{4}{ }^{3-}$ ion is known but not very stable. The $\mathrm{PO}_{3}^{-}$ ion is not known. Account for these differences in terms of the bonding in the four anions.

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
09:26

Problem 44

In each of the following pairs of substances, one is stable and known, and the other is unstable. For each pair, choose the stable substance, and explain why the other is unstable.
a. $\mathrm{NF}_{5}$ or $\mathrm{PF}_{5}$
b. $\mathrm{AsF}_{5}$ or $\mathrm{AsI}_{5}$
c. $\mathrm{NF}_{3}$ or $\mathrm{NBr}_{3}$

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
02:00

Problem 45

Write balanced equations for the reactions described in Table $20.13$ for the production of $\mathrm{Bi}$ and $\mathrm{Sb}$.

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
03:50

Problem 46

Arsenic reacts with oxygen to form oxides that react with water in a manner analogous to that of the phosphorus oxides. Write balanced chemical equations describing the reaction of arsenic with oxygen and the reaction of the resulting oxide with water.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
03:08

Problem 47

The Group 5 A elements can form molecules or ions that involve three, five, or six covalent bonds; $\mathrm{NH}_{3}, \mathrm{AsCl}_{5}$, and $\mathrm{PF}_{6}^{-}$ are examples. Draw the Lewis structure for each of these substances, and predict the molecular structure and hybridization for each. Why doesn't $\mathrm{NF}_{5}$ or $\mathrm{NCl}_{6}^{-}$ form?

Crystal Wang
Crystal Wang
Numerade Educator
01:08

Problem 48

Lewis structures can be used to understand why some molecules react in certain ways. Write the Lewis structure for the reactants and products in the reactions described below.
a. Nitrogen dioxide dimerizes to produce dinitrogen tetroxide.
b. Boron trihydride accepts a pair of electrons from ammonia, forming $\mathrm{BH}_{3} \mathrm{NH}_{3}$.
Give a possible explanation for why these two reactions occur.

Anand Jangid
Anand Jangid
Numerade Educator
04:26

Problem 49

Hydrazine $\left(\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4}\right)$ is used as a fuel in liquid-fueled rockets. When hydrazine reacts with oxygen gas, nitrogen gas and water vapor are produced. Write a balanced equation and use bond energies from Table $8.4$ to estimate $\Delta H$ for this reaction.

Julian Taurozzi
Julian Taurozzi
Numerade Educator
01:28

Problem 50

The space shuttle orbiter utilizes the oxidation of methylhydrazine by dinitrogen tetroxide for propulsion:
$4 \mathrm{~N}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{3}(l)+5 \mathrm{~N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}(l) \longrightarrow 12 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g)+9 \mathrm{~N}_{2}(g)+4 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g)$
Calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}$ for this reaction using data in Appendix $4 .$

Bin Chen
Bin Chen
Numerade Educator
08:59

Problem 51

Many oxides of nitrogen have positive values for the standard free energy of formation. Using NO as an example, explain why this is the case.

Michaelle Lubich
Michaelle Lubich
Numerade Educator
05:45

Problem 52

Using data from Appendix 4 calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}, \Delta S^{\circ}$, and $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the reaction
$$\mathrm{N}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{NO}(g)$$
Why does NO form in an automobile engine but then does not readily decompose back to $\mathrm{N}_{2}$ and $\mathrm{O}_{2}$ in the atmosphere?

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
20:46

Problem 53

Compare the Lewis structures with the molecular orbital view of the bonding in $\mathrm{NO}, \mathrm{NO}^{+}$, and $\mathrm{NO}^{-}$. Account for any discrepancies between the two models.

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
02:11

Problem 54

The $\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ molecule is linear and polar.
a. On the basis of this experimental evidence, which arrangement, NNO or NON, is correct? Explain your answer.
b. On the basis of your answer to part a, write the Lewis structure of $\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ (including resonance forms). Give the formal charge on each atom and the hybridization of the central atom.
c. How would the multiple bonding in
$$: \mathrm{N} \equiv \mathrm{N}-\mathrm{O}$$
be described in terms of orbitals?

David Collins
David Collins
Numerade Educator
02:53

Problem 55

Phosphoric acid $\left(\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{4}\right)$ is a triprotic acid, phosphorous acid $\left(\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{3}\right)$ is a diprotic acid, and hypophosphorous acid $\left(\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{2}\right)$ is a monoprotic acid. Explain this phenomenon.

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
06:36

Problem 56

Trisodium phosphate (TSP) is an effective grease remover. Like many cleaners, TSP acts as a base in water. Write a balanced equation to account for this basic behavior.

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
03:21

Problem 57

Use bond energies to estimate the maximum wavelength of light that will cause the reaction
$$\mathrm{O}_{3} \stackrel{\mathrm{hr}}{\longrightarrow} \mathrm{O}_{2}+\mathrm{O}$$

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
01:21

Problem 58

The xerographic (dry writing) process was invented in 1938 by
C. Carlson. In xerography, an image is produced on a photoconductor by exposing it to light. Selenium is commonly used, since its conductivity increases three orders of magnitude upon exposure to light in the range from 400 to $500 \mathrm{~nm}$. What color light should be used to cause selenium to become conductive? (See Figure 7.2.)

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
00:59

Problem 59

Write a balanced equation describing the reduction of $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{SeO}_{4}$ by $\mathrm{SO}_{2}$ to produce selenium.

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
10:46

Problem 60

Complete and balance each of the following reactions.
a. the reaction between sulfur dioxide gas and oxygen gas
b. the reaction between sulfur trioxide gas and water
c. the reaction between concentrated sulfuric acid and sucrose $\left(\mathrm{C}_{12} \mathrm{H}_{22} \mathrm{O}_{11}\right)$

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
01:24

Problem 61

Ozone is desirable in the upper atmosphere but undesirable in the lower atmosphere. A dictionary states that ozone has the scent of a spring thunderstorm. How can these seemingly conflicting statements be reconciled in terms of the chemical properties of ozone?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:37

Problem 62

. Ozone is a possible replacement for chlorine in municipal water purification. Unlike chlorine, virtually no ozone remains after treatment. This has good and bad consequences. Explain.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:19

Problem 63

Sulfur forms a wide variety of compounds in which it has $+6$, $+4,+2,0$, and $-2$ oxidation states. Give examples of sulfur compounds having each of these oxidation states.

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
00:36

Problem 64

An unknown element is a nonmetal and has a valence electron configuration of $n s^{2} n p^{4}$.
a. How many valence electrons does this element have?
b. What are some possible identities for this element?
c. What is the formula of the compound(s) this element would form with lithium? hydrogen? magnesium? aluminum? fluorine?

Sam Limsuwannarot
Sam Limsuwannarot
Numerade Educator
02:44

Problem 65

How can the paramagnetism of $\mathrm{O}_{2}$ be explained using the molecular orbital model?

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
01:24

Problem 66

Describe the bonding in $\mathrm{SO}_{2}$ and $\mathrm{SO}_{3}$ using the localized electron model (hybrid orbital theory). How would the molecular orbital model describe the $\pi$ bonding in these two compounds?

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
02:13

Problem 67

Write the Lewis structure for $\mathrm{O}_{2} \mathrm{~F}_{2}$. Predict the bond angles and hybridization of the two central oxygen atoms. Assign oxidation states and formal charges to the atoms in $\mathrm{O}_{2} \mathrm{~F}_{2}$. The compound $\mathrm{O}_{2} \mathrm{~F}_{2}$ is a vigorous and potent oxidizing and fluorinating agent. Are oxidation states or formal charges more useful in accounting for these properties of $\mathrm{O}_{2} \mathrm{~F}_{2}$ ?

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
08:06

Problem 68

Give the Lewis structure, molecular structure, and hybridization of the oxygen atom for $\mathrm{OF}_{2}$. Would you expect $\mathrm{OF}_{2}$ to be a strong oxidizing agent like $\mathrm{O}_{2} \mathrm{~F}_{2}$ discussed in Exercise $67 ?$

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
04:27

Problem 69

Fluorine reacts with sulfur to form several different covalent compounds. Three of these compounds are $\mathrm{SF}_{2}, \mathrm{SF}_{4}$, and $\mathrm{SF}_{6}$. Draw the Lewis structures for these compounds, and predict the molecular structures (including bond angles). Would you expect $\mathrm{OF}_{4}$ to be a stable compound?

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
00:51

Problem 70

Predict some possible compounds that could form between chlorine and selenium.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:50

Problem 71

How does the oxyacid strength of the halogens vary as the number of oxygens in the formula increases?

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
06:47

Problem 72

Explain why $\mathrm{HF}$ is a weak acid, whereas $\mathrm{HCl}, \mathrm{HBr}$, and $\mathrm{HI}$ are all strong acids.

Matthew Bittner
Matthew Bittner
Numerade Educator
03:36

Problem 73

Hydrazine is somewhat toxic. Use the following half-reactions to explain why household bleach (highly alkaline solution of sodium hypochlorite) should not be mixed with household ammonia or glass cleansers that contain ammonia.
$\mathrm{ClO}^{-}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{OH}^{-}+\mathrm{Cl}^{-} \quad \mathscr{E}^{\circ}=0.90 \mathrm{~V}$
$\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4}+2 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{NH}_{3}+2 \mathrm{OH}^{-} \quad \mathscr{E}^{\circ}=-0.10 \mathrm{~V}$

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
05:18

Problem 74

What is a disproportionation reaction? Use the following reduction potentials
$$
\begin{aligned}
\mathrm{ClO}_{3}^{-} &+3 \mathrm{H}^{+}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{HClO}_{2}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} & & \mathscr{E}^{\circ}=1.21 \mathrm{~V} \\
\mathrm{HClO}_{2}+2 \mathrm{H}^{+}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{HClO}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} & & \mathscr{E}^{\circ}=1.65 \mathrm{~V}
\end{aligned}
$$
to predict whether $\mathrm{HClO}_{2}$ will disproportionate.

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
03:29

Problem 75

The xenon halides and oxides are isoelectronic with many other compounds and ions containing halogens. Give a molecule or ion in which iodine is the central atom that is isoelectronic with each of the following.
a. xenon tetroxide
d. xenon tetrafluoride
b. xenon trioxide
e. xenon hexafluoride
c. xenon difluoride

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
05:46

Problem 76

For each of the following, write the Lewis structure(s), predict the molecular structure (including bond angles), and give the expected hybridization of the central atom.
a. $\mathrm{KrF}_{2}$
b. $\mathrm{KrF}_{4}$
c. $\mathrm{XeO}_{2} \mathrm{~F}_{2}$
d. $\mathrm{XeO}_{2} \mathrm{~F}_{4}$

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:09

Problem 77

Although He is the second most abundant element in the universe, it is very rare on earth. Why?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
02:15

Problem 78

The noble gas with the largest atmospheric abundance is argon. Using the data in Table $20.22$, calculate the mass of argon at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and $1.0 \mathrm{~atm}$ in a room $10.0 \mathrm{~m} \times 10.0 \mathrm{~m} \times 10.0 \mathrm{~m}$. How
many Ar atoms are in this room? How many Ar atoms do you inhale in one breath (approximately $2 \mathrm{~L}$ ) of air at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and $1.0$ atm? Argon gas is inert, so it poses no serious health risks. However, if significant amounts of radon are inhaled into the lungs, lung cancer is a possible result. Explain the health risk differences between argon gas and radon gas.

Crystal Wang
Crystal Wang
Numerade Educator
01:07

Problem 79

There is evidence that radon reacts with fluorine to form compounds similar to those formed by xenon and fluorine. Predict the formulas of these $\mathrm{RnF}_{x}$ compounds. Why is the chemistry of radon difficult to study?

Bin Chen
Bin Chen
Numerade Educator
03:55

Problem 80

For the $\mathrm{RnF}_{x}$ compounds you predicted in the preceding exercise, give the molecular structure (including bond angles).

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:40

Problem 81

Which do you think would be the greater health hazard, the release of a radioactive nuclide of Sr or a radioactive nuclide of Xe into the environment? Assume the amount of radioactivity is the same in each case. Explain your answer on the basis of the chemical properties of Sr and Xe. Why are the chemical properties of a radioactive substance important in assessing its potential health hazards?

Arron Martel
Arron Martel
Numerade Educator
17:32

Problem 82

The most significant source of natural radiation is radon- $222 .$ ${ }^{222} \mathrm{Rn}$, a decay product of ${ }^{2.38} \mathrm{U}$, is continuously generated in the earth's crust, allowing gaseous $\mathrm{Rn}$ to seep into the basements of buildings. Because ${ }^{222} \mathrm{Rn}$ is an $\alpha$ -particle producer with a relatively short half-life of $3.82$ days, it can cause biological damage when inhaled.
a. How many $\alpha$ particles and $\beta$ particles are produced when ${ }^{238} \mathrm{U}$ decays to ${ }^{222} \mathrm{Rn}$ ? What nucleus is produced when ${ }^{222} \mathrm{Rn}$ decays?
b. Radon is a noble gas so one would expect it to pass through the body quickly. Why is there a concern over inhaling ${ }^{222} \mathrm{Rn}$ ? -

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
01:41

Problem 83

In many natural waters, nitrogen and phosphorus are the least abundant nutrients available for plant life. Some waters that become polluted from agricultural runoff or municipal sewage become infested with algae. The algae flourish, and fish life dies off as a result. Describe how these events are chemically related.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
08:19

Problem 84

Provide a reasonable estimate for the number of atoms in a 150 -lb adult human. Explain your answer. Use the information given in Table $20.2$.

Bcrypt_Sha256$$2B$12$Robtujr9L3Df26Glt66Ss.Uw2Kt8Wdwq0Nfds2Ggy2Aewx5U6Voiw Bcrypt_Sha256$$2B$12$Robtujr9L3Df26Glt66Ss.Dgzqci3Fjqnd6Vr5Zzgo/E/U5G11F5C
Bcrypt_Sha256$$2B$12$Robtujr9L3Df26Glt66Ss.Uw2Kt8Wdwq0Nfds2Ggy2Aewx5U6Voiw Bcrypt_Sha256$$2B$12$Robtujr9L3Df26Glt66Ss.Dgzqci3Fjqnd6Vr5Zzgo/E/U5G11F5C
Numerade Educator
00:47

Problem 85

In the $1950 \mathrm{~s}$ and $1960 \mathrm{~s}$, several nations conducted tests of nuclear warheads in the atmosphere. It was customary, following each test, to monitor the concentration of strontium-90 (a radioactive isotope of strontium) in milk. Why would strontium90 tend to accumulate in milk?

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
02:43

Problem 86

EDTA is used as a complexing agent in chemical analysis. Solutions of EDTA, usually containing the disodium salt $\mathrm{Na}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{EDTA}$, are also used to treat heavy metal poisoning. The equilibrium constant for the following reaction is $1.0 \times 10^{23}$ : Calculate $\left[\mathrm{Pb}^{2+}\right]$ at equilibrium in a solution originally $0.0010 \mathrm{M}$ in $\mathrm{Pb}^{2+}, 0.050 \mathrm{M}$ in $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{EDTA}^{2-}$, and buffered at $\mathrm{pH}=6.00$.

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
06:02

Problem 87

Bacterial digestion is an economical method of sewage treatment. The reaction is an intermediate step in the conversion of the nitrogen in organic compounds into nitrate ions. How much bacterial tissue is produced in a treatment plant for every $1.0 \times 10^{4} \mathrm{~kg}$ of wastewater containing $3.0 \% \mathrm{NH}_{4}^{+}$ ions by mass? Assume that $95 \%$ of the ammonium ions are consumed by the bacteria.

Julian Taurozzi
Julian Taurozzi
Numerade Educator
00:02

Problem 88

Phosphate buffers are important in regulating the $\mathrm{pH}$ of intracellular fluids at $\mathrm{pH}$ values generally between $7.1$ and $7.2$. What is the concentration ratio of $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{PO}_{4}^{-}$ to $\mathrm{HPO}_{4}^{2-}$ in intracellular fluid at $\mathrm{pH}=7.15 ?$
$\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{PO}_{4}^{-}(a q) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{HPO}_{4}^{2-}(a q)+\mathrm{H}^{+}(a q) \quad K_{\mathrm{a}}=6.2 \times 10^{-8}$
Why is a buffer composed of $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{4}$ and $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{PO}_{4}^{-}$ ineffective in buffering the $\mathrm{pH}$ of intracellular fluid?
$\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{4}(a q) \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{PO}_{4}^{-}(a q)+\mathrm{H}^{+}(a q) \quad K_{\mathrm{a}}=7.5 \times 10^{-3}$

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
04:51

Problem 89

Hydrogen peroxide is used as a cleaning agent in the treatment of cuts and abrasions for several reasons. It is an oxidizing agent that can directly kill many microorganisms; it decomposes upon contact with blood, releasing elemental oxygen gas (which inhibits the growth of anaerobic microorganisms); and it foams upon contact with blood, which provides a cleansing action. In the laboratory, small quantities of hydrogen peroxide can be prepared by the action of an acid on an alkaline earth metal peroxide, such as barium peroxide:
$$\mathrm{BaO}_{2}(s)+2 \mathrm{HCl}(a q) \longrightarrow \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}(a q)+\mathrm{BaCl}_{2}(a q)$$
What mass of hydrogen peroxide can result when $1.50 \mathrm{~g}$ barium peroxide is treated with $25.0 \mathrm{~mL}$ hydrochloric acid solution containing $0.0272 \mathrm{~g} \mathrm{HCl}$ per $\mathrm{mL}$ ? What mass of which reagent is left unreacted?

Ronald Prasad
Ronald Prasad
Numerade Educator
01:00

Problem 90

In large doses, selenium is toxic. However, in moderate intake, selenium is a physiologically important element. How is selenium physiologically important?

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:01

Problem 91

. It takes $15 \mathrm{kWh}$ (kilowatt-hours) of electrical energy to produce $1.0 \mathrm{~kg}$ of aluminum metal from aluminum oxide by the Hall-Heroult process. Compare this to the amount of energy necessary to melt $1.0 \mathrm{~kg}$ of aluminum metal. Why is it economically feasible to recycle aluminum cans? (The enthalpy of fusion for aluminum metal is $10.7 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}[1$ watt $=1 \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{s}] .$ )

David Collins
David Collins
Numerade Educator
01:33

Problem 92

The inert-pair effect is sometimes used to explain the tendency of heavier members of Group $3 \mathrm{~A}$ to exhibit $+1$ and $+3$ oxidation states. What does the inert-pair effect reference? (Hint: Consider the valence electron configuration for Group $3 \mathrm{~A}$ elements.)

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:31

Problem 93

Calculate the $\mathrm{pH}$ of a $0.050 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{Al}\left(\mathrm{NO}_{3}\right)_{3}$ solution. The $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ value for $\mathrm{Al}\left(\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}\right)_{6}{ }^{3+}$ is $1.4 \times 10^{-5}$.

Bin Chen
Bin Chen
Numerade Educator
02:10

Problem 94

The compound with the formula $\mathrm{TII}_{3}$ is a black solid. Given the following standard reduction potentials:
$$\begin{aligned}\mathrm{Tl}^{3+}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{Tl}^{+} & \mathscr{E}^{\circ}=+1.25 \mathrm{~V} \\
\mathrm{I}_{3}^{-}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow 3 \mathrm{I}^{-} & \mathscr{E}^{\circ}=+0.55 \mathrm{~V}
\end{aligned}$$
would you formulate this compound as thallium(III) iodide or thallium(I) triiodide?

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
03:56

Problem 95

How could you determine experimentally whether the compound $\mathrm{Ga}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{4}$ contains two gallium(II) ions or one gallium(I) and one gallium(III) ion? (Hint: Consider the electron configurations of the three possible ions.)

Christina Lollar
Christina Lollar
Numerade Educator
02:37

Problem 96

The resistivity (a measure of electrical resistance) of graphite is $(0.4$ to $5.0) \times 10^{-4} \mathrm{ohm} \cdot \mathrm{cm}$ in the basal plane. (The basal plane is the plane of the six-membered rings of carbon atoms.) The resistivity is $0.2$ to $1.0 \mathrm{ohm} \cdot \mathrm{cm}$ along the axis perpendicular to the plane. The resistivity of diamond is $10^{14}$ to $10^{16} \mathrm{ohm} \cdot \mathrm{cm}$ and is independent of direction. How can you account for this behavior in terms of the structures of graphite and diamond?

Crystal Wang
Crystal Wang
Numerade Educator
02:06

Problem 97

The compound $\mathrm{NF}_{3}$ is quite stable, but $\mathrm{NCl}_{3}$ is very unstable $\left(\mathrm{NCl}_{3}\right.$ was first synthesized in 1811 by $\mathrm{P} . \mathrm{L} .$ Dulong, who lost three fingers and an eye studying its properties). The compounds $\mathrm{NBr}_{3}$ and $\mathrm{NI}_{3}$ are rare, although the explosive compound $\mathrm{NI}_{3} \cdot \mathrm{NH}_{3}$ is known. Account for the instability of these halides of nitrogen.

Nicole Smina
Nicole Smina
Numerade Educator
00:59

Problem 98

Photogray lenses contain small embedded crystals of solid silver chloride. Silver chloride is light-sensitive because of the reaction
$$\mathrm{AgCl}(s) \stackrel{\mathrm{hv}}{\longrightarrow} \mathrm{Ag}(s)+\mathrm{Cl}$$
Small particles of metallic silver cause the lenses to darken. In the lenses this process is reversible. When the light is removed, the reverse reaction occurs. However, when pure white silver chloride is exposed to sunlight it darkens; the reverse reaction does not occur in the dark.
a. How do you explain this difference?
b. Photogray lenses do become permanently dark in time. How do you account for this?

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
02:39

Problem 99

Ammonia is produced by the Haber process, in which nitrogen and hydrogen are reacted directly using an iron mesh impregnated with oxides as a catalyst. For the reaction
$$\mathrm{N}_{2}(g)+3 \mathrm{H}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons 2 \mathrm{NH}_{3}(g)$$
equilibrium constants $\left(K_{\mathrm{p}}\right.$ values) as a function of temperature are
$300^{\circ} \mathrm{C}, \quad 4.34 \times 10^{-3}$
$500^{\circ} \mathrm{C}, \quad 1.45 \times 10^{-5}$
$600^{\circ} \mathrm{C}, \quad 2.25 \times 10^{-6}$
Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?

Julian Taurozzi
Julian Taurozzi
Numerade Educator
02:30

Problem 100

The synthesis of ammonia gas from nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas represents a classic case in which a knowledge of kinetics and equilibrium was used to make a desired chemical reaction economically feasible. Explain how each of the following conditions helps to maximize the yield of ammonia.
a. running the reaction at an elevated temperature
b. removing the ammonia from the reaction mixture as it forms
c. using a catalyst
d. running the reaction at high pressure

Teesta Dasgupta
Teesta Dasgupta
University of Pittsburgh - Main Campus
04:17

Problem 101

Nitric acid is produced commercially by the Ostwald process, represented by the following equations:
$$\begin{aligned}4 \mathrm{NH}_{3}(\mathrm{~g})+5 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) & \longrightarrow 4 \mathrm{NO}(g)+6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(g) \\
2 \mathrm{NO}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) & \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{NO}_{2}(g) \\
3 \mathrm{NO}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) & \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{HNO}_{3}(a q)+\mathrm{NO}(g)\end{aligned}$$
What mass of $\mathrm{NH}_{3}$ must be used to produce $1.0 \times 10^{6} \mathrm{~kg} \mathrm{HNO}_{3}$ by the Ostwald process? Assume $100 \%$ yield in each reaction and assume that the NO produced in the third step is not recycled.

Stephen Ho
Stephen Ho
Numerade Educator
07:08

Problem 102

Draw Lewis structures for the $\mathrm{AsCl}_{4}^{+}$ and $\mathrm{AsCl}_{6}^{-}$ ions. What type of reaction (acid-base, oxidation-reduction, or the like) is the following?
$$2 \mathrm{AsCl}_{5}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{AsCl}_{4} \mathrm{AsCl}_{6}(s)$$

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:38

Problem 103

The unit cell for a pure xenon fluoride compound is shown below. What is the formula of the compound?

Madi Sousa
Madi Sousa
Numerade Educator
10:27

Problem 104

Halogens form a variety of covalent compounds with each other. For example, chlorine and fluorine form the compounds CIF, $\mathrm{ClF}_{3}$, and $\mathrm{ClF}_{5}$. Predict the molecular structure (including bond angles) for each of these three compounds. Would you expect $\mathrm{FCl}_{3}$ to be a stable compound? Explain.

Christina Lollar
Christina Lollar
Numerade Educator
04:53

Problem 105

Suppose $10.00 \mathrm{~g}$ of an alkaline earth metal reacts with $10.0 \mathrm{~L}$ water to produce $6.10 \mathrm{~L}$ hydrogen gas at $1.00 \mathrm{~atm}$ and $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Identify the metal and determine the $\mathrm{pH}$ of the solution.

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
09:11

Problem 106

a. Many biochemical reactions that occur in cells require relatively high concentrations of potassium ion $\left(\mathrm{K}^{+}\right) .$ The concentration of $\mathrm{K}^{+}$ in muscle cells is about $0.15 \mathrm{M}$. The concentration of $\mathrm{K}^{+}$ in blood plasma is about $0.0050 M$. The high internal concentration in cells is maintained by pumping $\mathrm{K}^{+}$ from the plasma. How much work must be done to transport $1.0 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~K}^{+}$ from the blood to the inside of a muscle cell at $37^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ (normal body temperature)?
b. When $1.0 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~K}^{+}$ is transferred from blood to the cells, do any other ions have to be transported? Why or why not?
c. Cells use the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate, abbreviated ATP, as a source of energy. Symbolically, this reaction can be represented as
$$\operatorname{ATP}(a q)+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \longrightarrow \mathrm{ADP}(a q)+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{PO}_{4}^{-}(a q)$$
where ADP represents adenosine diphosphate. For this reaction at $37^{\circ} \mathrm{C}, K=1.7 \times 10^{5}$. How many moles of ATP must be hydrolyzed to provide the energy for the transport of $1.0 \mathrm{~mol}$ $\mathrm{K}^{+}$ ? Assume standard conditions for the ATP hydrolysis reaction.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
00:02

Problem 107

One reason suggested to account for the instability of long chains of silicon atoms is that the decomposition involves the transition state shown below: The activation energy for such a process is $210 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$, which is less than either the $\mathrm{Si}-\mathrm{Si}$ or $\mathrm{Si}-\mathrm{H}$ energy. Why would a similar mechanism not be expected to be very important in the decomposition of long carbon chains?

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
01:46

Problem 108

From the information on the temperature stability of white and gray tin given in this chapter, which form would you expect to have the more ordered structure (have the smaller positional probability)?

LJ
Lena Jake
Numerade Educator
01:34

Problem 109

Lead forms compounds in the $+2$ and $+4$ oxidation states. All lead(II) halides are known (and are known to be ionic). Only $\mathrm{PbF}_{4}$ and $\mathrm{PbCl}_{4}$ are known among the possible lead(IV) halides. Presumably lead(IV) oxidizes bromide and iodide ions, producing the lead(II) halide and the free halogen:
Suppose $25.00 \mathrm{~g}$ of a lead(IV) halide reacts to form $16.12 \mathrm{~g}$ of a lead(II) halide and the free halogen. Identify the halogen.

Lottie Adams
Lottie Adams
Numerade Educator
01:27

Problem 110

Many structures of phosphorus-containing compounds are drawn with some $\mathrm{P}=\mathrm{O}$ bonds. These bonds are not the typical $\pi$ bonds we've considered, which involve the overlap of two $p$ orbitals. Instead, they result from the overlap of a $d$ orbital on the phosphorus atom with a $p$ orbital on oxygen. This type of $\pi$ bonding is sometimes used as an explanation for why $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{3}$ has the first structure below rather than the second: Draw a picture showing how a $d$ orbital and a $p$ orbital overlap to form a $\pi$ bond.

Christina Lollar
Christina Lollar
Numerade Educator
02:38

Problem 111

Use bond energies (Table 8.4) to show that the preferred products for the decomposition of $\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{3}$ are $\mathrm{NO}_{2}$ and $\mathrm{NO}$ rather than $\mathrm{O}_{2}$ and $\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}$. (The $\mathrm{N}-\mathrm{O}$ single bond energy is $201 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol} .$ ) Hint:
Consider the reaction kinetics.

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
00:01

Problem 112

Sodium tripolyphosphate $\left(\mathrm{Na}_{5} \mathrm{P}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{10}\right)$ is used in many synthetic detergents to soften the water by complexing $\mathrm{Mg}^{2+}$ and $\mathrm{Ca}^{2+}$ ions. It also increases the efficiency of surfactants (wetting agents) that lower a liquid's surface tension. The $K$ value for the formation of $\mathrm{MgP}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{10}{ }^{3-}$ is $4.0 \times 10^{8} .$ The reaction is
$$\mathrm{Mg}^{2+}+\mathrm{P}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{10}{ }^{5-} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{MgP}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{10}{ }^{3-}$$
Calculate the concentration of $\mathrm{Mg}^{2+}$ in a solution that was originally $50 .$ ppm of $\mathrm{Mg}^{2+}\left(50 . \mathrm{mg} / \mathrm{L}\right.$ of solution) after $40 . \mathrm{g} \mathrm{Na}_{5} \mathrm{P}_{3} \mathrm{O}_{10}$
is added to $1.0 \mathrm{~L}$ of the solution.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
12:14

Problem 113

One pathway for the destruction of ozone in the upper atmosphere is
$$\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{O}_{3}(g)+\mathrm{NO}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{NO}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \quad \text { Slow } \\\mathrm{NO}_{2}(g)+\mathrm{O}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{NO}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \quad \text { Fast } \\
\text { Overall reaction: } \mathrm{O}_{3}(g)+\mathrm{O}(g) \rightarrow 2 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g)\end{array}$$
a. Which species is a catalyst?
b. Which species is an intermediate?
c. The activation energy $E_{\mathrm{a}}$ for the uncatalyzed reaction
$$\mathrm{O}_{3}(g)+\mathrm{O}(g) \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$$
is $14.0 \mathrm{~kJ} . E_{\mathrm{a}}$ for the same reaction when catalyzed by the presence of $\mathrm{NO}$ is $11.9 \mathrm{~kJ} .$ What is the ratio of the rate constant for the catalyzed reaction to that for the uncatalyzed reaction at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ ? Assume that the frequency factor $A$ is the same for each reaction.
d. One of the concerns about the use of Freons is that they will migrate to the upper atmosphere, where chlorine atoms can be generated by the reaction
$$\mathrm{CCl}_{2} \mathrm{~F}_{2} \stackrel{\mathrm{hr}}{\longrightarrow} \mathrm{CF}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}+\mathrm{Cl}$$
Freon- 12
Chlorine atoms also can act as a catalyst for the destruction of ozone. The first step of a proposed mechanism for chlorinecatalyzed ozone destruction is
$$\mathrm{Cl}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{3}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{ClO}(g)+\mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$$ Slow
Assuming a two-step mechanism, propose the second step in the mechanism and give the overall balanced equation.
e. The activation energy for Cl-catalyzed destruction of ozone is $2.1 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$. Estimate the efficiency with which $\mathrm{Cl}$ atoms destroy ozone as compared with NO molecules at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Assume that the frequency factor $A$ is the same for each catalyzed reaction and assume similar rate laws for each catalyzed reaction.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
00:01

Problem 114

Using data from Appendix 4, calculate $\Delta H^{\circ}, \Delta G^{\circ}$, and $K_{\mathrm{p}}$ (at $298 \mathrm{~K}$ ) for the production of ozone from oxygen:
$$3 \mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \rightleftharpoons 2 \mathrm{O}_{3}(g)$$
At $30 \mathrm{~km}$ above the surface of the earth, the temperature is about $230 . \mathrm{K}$, and the partial pressure of oxygen is about $1.0 \times 10^{-3}$ atm. Estimate the partial pressure of ozone in equilibrium with oxygen at $30 \mathrm{~km}$ above the earth's surface. Is it reasonable to assume that the equilibrium between oxygen and ozone is maintained under these conditions? Explain.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
02:00

Problem 115

You travel to a distant, cold planet where the ammonia flows like water. In fact, the inhabitants of this planet use ammonia (an abundant liquid on their planet) much as earthlings use water. Ammonia is also similar to water in that it is amphoteric and undergoes autoionization. The $K$ value for the autoionization of ammonia is $1.8 \times 10^{-12}$ at the standard temperature of the planet. What is the $\mathrm{pH}$ of ammonia at this temperature?

Aadit Sharma
Aadit Sharma
Numerade Educator
00:02

Problem 116

Nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to form ammonia gas. You have an equimolar mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases in a $15.0$ - L container fitted with a piston in a room with a pressure of $1.00 \mathrm{~atm}$. The piston apparatus allows the container volume to change in order to keep the pressure constant at $1.00$ atm. Assume ideal behavior, constant temperature, and complete reaction.
a. What is the partial pressure of ammonia in the container when the reaction is complete?
b. What is the mole fraction of ammonia in the container when the reaction is complete?
c. What is the volume of the container when the reaction is complete?

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
04:33

Problem 117

A cylinder fitted with a movable piston initially contains $2.00 \mathrm{~mol}$ $\mathrm{O}_{2}(g)$ and an unknown amount of $\mathrm{SO}_{2}(g)$. The oxygen is known to be in excess. The density of the mixture is $0.8000 \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{L}$ at some $T$ and $P$. After the reaction has gone to completion, forming $\mathrm{SO}_{3}(g)$, the density of the resulting gaseous mixture is $0.8471 \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{L}$ at the same $T$ and $P$. Calculate the mass of $\mathrm{SO}_{3}$ formed in the reaction.

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
06:39

Problem 118

The heaviest member of the alkaline earth metals is radium (Ra), a naturally radioactive element discovered by Pierre and Marie Curie in $1898 .$ Radium was initially isolated from the uranium ore pitchblende, in which it is present as approximately $1.0 \mathrm{~g}$ per $7.0$ metric tons of pitchblende. How many atoms of radium can be isolated from $1.75 \times 10^{8} \mathrm{~g}$ pitchblende $(1$ metric ton $=$ $1000 \mathrm{~kg}) ?$ One of the early uses of radium was as an additive to paint so that watch dials coated with this paint would glow in the dark. The longest-lived isotope of radium has a half-life of $1.60 \times 10^{3}$ years. If an antique watch, manufactured in 1925, contains $15.0 \mathrm{mg}$ radium, how many atoms of radium will remain in $2025 ?$

Christina Lollar
Christina Lollar
Numerade Educator
04:48

Problem 119

Indium(III) phosphide is a semiconducting material that has been frequently used in lasers, light-emitting diodes (LED), and fiberoptic devices. This material can be synthesized at $900 . \mathrm{K}$ according to the following reaction:
$$\operatorname{In}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{3}(g)+\mathrm{PH}_{3}(g) \longrightarrow \operatorname{In} \mathrm{P}(s)+3 \mathrm{CH}_{4}(g)$$
a. If $2.56 \mathrm{~L} \mathrm{In}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{3}$ at $2.00 \mathrm{~atm}$ is allowed to react with $1.38 \mathrm{~L}$
$\mathrm{PH}_{3}$ at $3.00 \mathrm{~atm}$, what mass of $\operatorname{In} \mathrm{P}(s)$ will be produced assuming the reaction is $87 \%$ efficient?
b. When an electric current is passed through an optoelectronic device containing InP, the light emitted has an energy of $2.03 \times 10^{-19} \mathrm{~J} .$ What is the wavelength of this light and is it visible to the human eye?
c. The semiconducting properties of $\operatorname{In} P$ can be altered by doping. If a small number of phosphorus atoms are replaced by atoms with an electron configuration of $[\mathrm{Kr}] 5 s^{2} 4 d^{10} 5 p^{4}$, is this n-type or p-type doping?

Bin Chen
Bin Chen
Numerade Educator
07:13

Problem 120

Although nitrogen trifluoride $\left(\mathrm{NF}_{3}\right)$ is a thermally stable compound, nitrogen triiodide $\left(\mathrm{NI}_{3}\right)$ is known to be a highly explosive material. $\mathrm{NI}_{3}$ can be synthesized according to the equation
$$\mathrm{BN}(s)+3 \mathrm{IF}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{BF}_{3}(g)+\mathrm{NI}_{3}(g)$$
a. What is the enthalpy of formation for $\mathrm{NI}_{3}(s)$ given the enthalpy of reaction ( $-307 \mathrm{~kJ}$ ) and the enthalpies of formation for $\mathrm{BN}(s)(-254 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}), \mathrm{IF}(g)(-96 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol})$, and $\mathrm{BF}_{3}(g)$
$(-1136 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}) ?$
b. It is reported that when the synthesis of $\mathrm{NI}_{3}$ is conducted using $4 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{IF}$ for every $1 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{BN}$, one of the by-products isolated is $\left[\mathrm{IF}_{2}\right]^{+}\left[\mathrm{BF}_{4}\right]^{-}$. What are the molecular geometries of the species in this by-product? What are the hybridizations of the central atoms in each species in the by-product?

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
08:51

Problem 121

While selenic acid has the formula $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{SeO}_{4}$ and thus is directly related to sulfuric acid, telluric acid is best visualized as $\mathrm{H}_{6} \mathrm{TeO}_{6}$ or $\mathrm{Te}(\mathrm{OH})_{6}$
a. What is the oxidation state of tellurium in $\mathrm{Te}(\mathrm{OH})_{6}$ ?
b. Despite its structural differences with sulfuric and selenic acid, telluric acid is a diprotic acid with $\mathrm{p} K_{a_{1}}=7.68$ and $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}_{2}}=11.29 .$ Telluric acid can be prepared by hydrolysis of tellurium hexafluoride according to the equation
$$\mathrm{TeF}_{6}(g)+6 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(l) \longrightarrow \mathrm{Te}(\mathrm{OH})_{6}(a q)+6 \mathrm{HF}(a q)$$
Tellurium hexafluoride can be prepared by the reaction of elemental tellurium with fluorine gas:
$$\mathrm{Te}(s)+3 \mathrm{~F}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{TeF}_{6}(g)$$
If a cubic block of tellurium (density $=6.240 \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{cm}^{3}$ ) measuring $0.545 \mathrm{~cm}$ on edge is allowed to react with $2.34 \mathrm{~L}$ fluorine gas at $1.06$ atm and $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$, what is the $\mathrm{pH}$ of a solution of $\mathrm{Te}(\mathrm{OH})_{6}$ formed by dissolving the isolated $\mathrm{TeF}_{6}(g)$ in $115 \mathrm{~mL}$ water?

Susan Hallstrom
Susan Hallstrom
Numerade Educator
08:21

Problem 122

Captain Kirk has set a trap for the Klingons who are threatening an innocent planet. He has sent small groups of fighter rockets to sites that are invisible to Klingon radar and put a decoy in the open. He calls this the "fishhook" strategy. Mr. Spock has sent a coded message to the chemists on the fighters to tell the ships what to do next. The outline of the message is
Fill in the blanks of the message using the following clues.
(1) Symbol of the halogen whose hydride has the second highest boiling point in the series of HX compounds that are hydrogen halides.
(2) Symbol of the halogen that is the only hydrogen halide, $\mathrm{HX}$, that is a weak acid in aqueous solution.
(3) Symbol of the element whose existence on the sun was known before its existence on earth was discovered.
(4) The Group $5 \mathrm{~A}$ element in Table $20.13$ that should have the most metallic character.
(5) Symbol of the Group $6 \mathrm{~A}$ element that, like selenium, is a semiconductor.
(6) Symbol for the element known in rhombic and monoclinic forms.
(7) Symbol for the element that exists as diatomic molecules in a yellow-green gas when not combined with another element.
(8) Symbol for the most abundant element in and near the earth's crust.
(9) Symbol for the element that seems to give some protection against cancer when a diet rich in this element is consumed.
(10) Symbol for the smallest noble gas that forms compounds with fluorine having the general formula $\mathrm{AF}_{2}$ and $\mathrm{AF}_{4}$ (reverse the symbol and split the letters as shown).
(11) Symbol for the toxic element that, like phosphorus and antimony, forms tetrameric molecules when uncombined with other elements (split the letters of the symbol as shown).
(12) Symbol for the element that occurs as an inert component of air but is a very prominent part of fertilizers and explosives.

Christina Lollar
Christina Lollar
Numerade Educator
03:42

Problem 123

Use the symbols of the elements described in the following clues to fill in the blanks that spell out the name of a famous American scientist. Although this scientist was better known as a physicist than as a chemist, the Philadelphia institute that bears his name does include a biochemistry research facility.
(1) The oxide of this alkaline earth metal is amphoteric.
(2) The element that makes up approximately $3.0 \%$ by mass of the human body.
(3) The element having a $7 s^{1}$ valence electron configuration.
(4) This element is the alkali metal with the least negative standard reduction potential. Write its symbol in reverse order.
(5) The alkali metal whose ion is more concentrated in intracellular fluids as compared with blood plasma.
(6) This is the only alkali metal that reacts directly with nitrogen to make a binary compound with formula $\mathrm{M}_{3} \mathrm{~N}$.
(7) This element is the first in Group $3 \mathrm{~A}$ for which the $+1$ oxidation state is exhibited in stable compounds. Use only the second letter of its symbol.

Christina Lollar
Christina Lollar
Numerade Educator